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Tflnlversits of Toronto Studies

HISTORY AND ECONOMICS

THE FUR-TRADE OF CANADA

THE FUR-TRADE
OF CANADA

H. A. INNIS, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Political Economy
University of Toronto

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UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
Toronto: Oxford University Press, Canadian Branch

MCMXXVII

GENERAL PREFACE

The present volume is intended to inaugurate a series of
studies dealing with thd chief industries of Canada. Each
volume will seek to provide as thorough a presentation as
possible of the industry concerned, of its particular con¬
ditions and of its main problems, of its economic organization,
and in general of its contribution to the growth and prosperity
of the whole country.

All the volumes in the series will be produced under the
auspices of the department of Political Science in the Uni¬
versity of Toronto, and every effort will be made to maintain
a high standard of accuracy and comprehensiveness. In
fact it is hoped that each volume will serve as a definitive
statement of the actual position of the industry at the
present time.

In a new country the story of an industry has a special
significance, for it is generally one of rapid development
from pioneer conditions and methods brought about by ever-
changing adaptation to new demands. The difficulties it has
to face are different from those which exist under a long-
established civilization. It presents both peculiar oppor¬
tunities and peculiar problems. We believe, therefore, that
these studies will, taken as a whole, form an illuminating
chapter in the history of industry.

The present volume is the result of an experiment under¬
taken in the endeavour to meet the needs of the students
enrolled in the recently-established course in commerce.
The experiment was conducted by Dr. Innis. Having pre¬
pared for it not only by historical researches in the Canadian
Archives, but also by extensive personal investigation in the
Northwest, in the course of which he travelled to the borders
of the Arctic Ocean and later to the Yukon, he used the
material so gathered as the basis of further studies by the

senior students of the course. Then, under his direction, a
number of bulletins were issued, dealing with various aspects
of the fur- trade. These were made available to the public
through notices in the fur-trade journals and elsewhere, and
were very favourably received. Owing to financial con¬
siderations only a limited number of these bulletins were
supplied, but the response they met encouraged the depart¬
ment to issue the present volume, containing the more
important results and conclusions arrived at. It should,
however, be added that the book, though incorporating the
results of these investigations, has been written wholly by
Dr. Innis.

The present study does not deal with the historical
development of the industry. The history of the fur-trade,
which has an important bearing on the whole process of
settlement and exploitation of the Canadian West, is the
subject of a separate work which Dr. Innis has prepared,
and which will be published in due course.

The department hopes to issue successive works at
intervals of about two years. Another of its members is at
present engaged on the investigation of the mining industry
of Ontario and Quebec, and this will form the second study
in the series. In the prosecution of these investigations, we
desire to make special acknowledgment of the assistance
rendered by a grant from the research fund of the University.

We hope that these volumes will have a practical value as
well as an historical interest. We would welcome any
suggestions bearing on the facts or conclusions presented,
or any further information which any readers who are
familiar with or engaged in the fur industry may wish to
offer. Such communications may be addressed either to the
department, or directly to Professor Innis.

R. M. MacIver

AUTHOR’S PREFACE

The following work is the first part of a study of the fur-
trade, and is largely descriptive of the modern trade. Re¬
liance has been placed to a very large extent on the actual
work presented in the separate studies on which it is based.
The data have been gathered, and the conclusions suggested,
by the students. The studies have been rearranged, addi¬
tional material has been collected, and fresh interpretations
have been made, but the basic work remains unchanged.
Acknowledgments have been made throughout the work to
the students concerned.

There remains the hopeless task of acknowledging obliga¬
tions to those who have granted their assistance at various
stages of the work. I am indebted to numerous people at
present engaged in the fur-trade, especially in the Mackenzie
River district, but mention should be made of the kindness
of Messrs. W. Phillips, C. Sinclair, L. Romanet, and A.
Brabant, officials of the Hudson’s Bay Company; to Mr. J. K.
Cornwall, of the Northern Trading Company, and to Mr.
T. W. Harris, Indian agent at Fort Simpson. It would be
impossible to thank sufficiently the numerous individuals of
that district who spared no effort in placing their information
at my disposal. In the actual preparation of the work I
have been greatly indebted to many members of the staff
of the University of Toronto. To Mr. W. S. Wallace, as
Librarian of the University and as editor of the University
of Toronto Studies, I am under especially heavy obligations.
Dr. M. Palyi, of the Handelshochschule, Berlin, has kindly
supplied a bibliography of the more important German
works on the subject. Mr. F. C. C. Lynch and his staff
at the Natural Resources Intelligence Service in Ottawa
have rendered invaluable service at all times. Perhaps more
than all I have been indebted to Professor R. M. Maclver
for his constant encouragement throughout the preparation
of the work.

H. A. Innis

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chap.

I. Introduction page

§1. Fur bearers of North America . 11

§2. The modern demand for furs . 14

II. Prices of Furs . 18

III. The Production of Furs

§1. Conservation . 48

§2. Fur-farming . 66

§3. The problem of supply . 75

IV. The Manufacture of Furs

§1. Technique . 161

§2. Industrial organization . 119

V. Marketing Organization . 127

VI. Summary . 146

VII. Bibliography .

VIII. Appendices . 147

I. INTRODUCTION
§1. Fur-bearers of North America

Standard works of reference describe fur1 as a hairy
covering of the skin of animals which has, lying alongside it,
a longer covering called the overhair or, by fur-men, the
guard hair. The roots of the guard hair penetrate more
deeply in the skin than those of the fur. The fur is soft,
silky, and barbed lengthwise, whereas the overhair is straight,
smooth, and comparatively rigid. The function of the over¬
hair is to keep the fur filaments apart, to protect them from
injury, and to prevent them from felting. The purpose of
the fur, of course, is to protect from cold, in the case of most
land animals, or from water, in the case of “amphibious
animals (e.g., the beaver), or from general possibility of
injury, in the case of subterranean animals (e.g., the mole).
In land animals2 whose fur is primarily a protection against
cold, a change in season has direct physiological, results.
“Amphibious” animals are affected similarly, but in a less
pronounced degree. With the advance of winter a layer
of fat is formed under the skin, the skin itself becomes firm
and white, and fur appears as a thick covering, often of a
different colour. Conversely, with the advance of summer,
the fur and hair are supplanted by new hair with a typical
colour, while the skin with the disappearance of fat con¬
sumed during the winter and the shedding of the outer
epidermis becomes thick and has a greenish tinge. T e

!See w. E. Austin, Principles and Practice of Fur Dressing and Fur Dyeing

(New York, 1922), Chs. I-II. , , .

2The fur comes in during the autumn, and improves in length and density
until January and February. After these months the colour begins to fade.
With prime land furs the leather is thin and papery. When the fur is shed, the
leather becomes very much thicker. With amphibious animals the seasonal
changes are less noticeable. See Beaver Magazine, Winnipeg, January, 1921.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

change in colour is apparently a part of the adjustment to the
change in season. Generally the amount of pigment increases
as the equator is approached and decreases toward the
poles. White surfaces1 are poor heat conductors and serve
to retain animal heat, as in polar animals — bear and fox —
and as in animals which become white in winter — ermine
and hare.

The physiological adaptation2 of fur for protection may
be shown more clearly. The finest, closest fur is that of the
“amphibious” carnivora and rodentia, such as fur seals,
otters, mink, beaver, and muskrats. Moreover, on these
animals the underneath fur is thicker than that of the back.
The opposite is typical of land fur-,bearers. Most fur-bearing
animals have darker hair on the back and lighter hair on the
sides and underneath. Animals living in exposed areas, along
the open coasts or in bare tracts of country, in which long
distances must be covered to get food, are generally large,
strong-limbed, and have coarse fur. Animals living in more

‘Various biologists hold, on the other hand, that white coloration in northern
latitudes is primarily for protective purposes.

SSee Introduction to H. Poland, Fur-Bearing Animals in Nature and in
Commerce (London, 1892). It would be difficult to agree with the following
comment, but the conclusions are suggestive: “Nature furnishes every Animal
here [Hudson Bay] with extraordinary Furs to resist the Cold, that gradually
fall off as the warm Weather returns; and which is somewhat extraordinary,
so it happens with Dogs and Cats brought thither from Europe. As in all the
Parts of the Bodies of animals, which are furthest from the Heart, such as Feet,
Claws and Tails, the Blood is colder, and Circulation slower, it happens from
thence, that those Extremities are very apt to freeze. But it is very well worthy
notice that few of the Animals of this Country have long Tails or Legs; for
Instance, the Bears, Rabbits, Hares, American Cats, Porcupines, See., have all
short ones; and those that have long Tails, as the Fox, &c., have those parts
surprisingly protected by long bushy Hair, which keeps them from the sense of
cold” (Henry Ellis, A Voyage to Hudson Bay by the Dobbs GalDy and California
in the years 1746 and 1747 for discovering a Northwest passage, London, 1748,
pp. 178-9). It may be said in general that Arctic forms and those living at high
altitudes are the most plentifully supplied with hair, while tropical and sub¬
tropical forms are sparsely covered. An aquatic life tends to reduce the hair
coat; if the animal is semi-aquatic as seals and otters the hair is reduced to a
fine plush (H. H. Wilder, History of the Human Body, New York, 1909, p. 100).

Fur-Bearers of North America

densely wooded areas1 in which food and shelter are com¬
paratively abundant have finer fur with depth of colour and
lustre. An unusually severe winter with consequent scarcity
of food and shelter tends/ to produce thin coats and poorer
fur. Forest fires with their destruction of food and shelter
have well-known effects. ( Young animals generally have
thicker coats than old ones, as in the bear.

The more important fur-bearing animals are of the orders2
Carnivora and Rodentia.3 These orders are found largely
in the Palaearctic (Eurasia) and the Nearctic (North America)
zoogeographical regions or in the Holarctic (Heilprin) region.
Among the Rodentia the “amphibious” animals, such as the
muskrat and beaver, are outstanding fur-bearers. Of these,
the muskrat and the American beaver (Castor canadensis
Kuhl) are confined to North America. The family Castoridae
(beaver) is confined entirely to the Holarctic region. Among
the Carnivora the family Mustelidae (marten, ermine) is
most numerously represented in the subarctic portions of the
same area. These animals are mostly terrestrial. They are
small, having slender bodies, short legs, round heads, and
powerful jaws, and live on smaller mammalia and birds.
The family Otariidae (fur seal) is found along the Pacific
coast south from Behring Strait. The carcajou, marten,
polar bear, and arctic fox are common to the Palaearctic

■Mr. A. Brabant, fur-trade commissioner for the Hudson’s Bay Company,
states that the finest furs are obtained in most densely wooded districts, and
that depth of colouring and lustre of pelt increase in direct relation to degree of
forestation because of shelter, shade, and better food. Skins from Labrador and
British Columbia are preferred (see Illustrated Canadian Forestry Magazine,
Toronto, December, 1922).

2This study purposely omits the order Ungulata. Wool is strictly not fur,
but a fine curly hair. The buffalo are consequently not included. For a short
sketch of the lives and habitat of fur-bearing animals, see H. Poland, Fur-
Bearing Animals in Nature and in Commerce (London, 1892), E. Brass, A us dem
Reiche der Pdze (Berlin, 1925), Marcus Petersen, The Fur Traders and Fur¬
bearing Animals (Buffalo, N.Y., 1914).

3See Atlas of Zoogeography, Bartholomew’ s Physical Atlas, Vol. V, 1911,
part II, f.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

and the Canadian sub-region (Nearctic). The north tem¬
perate areas are the dominant fur-producing territories.

In the Nearctic zoogeographical region the more im¬
portant fur-bearers1 are found in the forest areas and along
the shore line of the Arctic regions. The significant forest
areas2 stretch northwesterly across the continent following
the general direction of the isotherms. As a result of varia¬
tions in temperature and precipitation these areas shade on
the north into the barren grounds and on the south into the
plains. Geologically they include the southerly portion of
the Precambrian formation with its numerous lakes and
rivers and its irregular drainage system and the adjoining
rich soils of the glacial deposits.. For the purposes of this
— study it may be concluded that the fur-trade of North
America is limited to definite areas — the Northern forests and
the Arctic, the Pacific and the Atlantic littorals. Although
fur-bearing animals are distributed over a much more
southerly range, the element of temperature has made this
territory much less important, especially from the standpoint
of the production of the finer varieties of fur.3

§2. The Modern Demand for Furs

Fur-production in Canada has entered a new era. The
new developments assumed greater importance toward the

1For an excellent survey of the range of animals see E. T. Seton, Life Histories
of Northern Animals (New York, 1909). See also Elliott Coues, Fur Bearing
Animals, a Monograph of North American Mustelidae (Department of Interior,
Miscellaneous Publications, No. 8, Washington, 1877); Bernard Rogan Ross,
A Popular Treatise on the Fur-hearing Animals of the Mackenzie River District
(Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, Vol. VI, 1861, pp. 5-36); Roderick Mac-
Farlane, Notes on Mammals collected and observed in the northern Mackenzie
River District-, C. Mair and R. MacFarlane, Through the Mackenzie Basin
(Toronto, 1908); E. A. Preble, A Biological Investigation of the Athabaska-
Mackenzie Region (North American Fauna, no. 27, Washington, 1908).

2See Allas of Canada, Ottawa, 1916, pp. 9-12, 17-20.

JIn preparing this introduction I have been greatly indebted to the assistance
of Mr. W.-J. K. Harkness, of the Department of Biology, in the University of
Toronto.

The Modern Demand for Furs

latter part of the nineteenth century, gathered force with the
turning of the century, and reached a climax with the world
war. We shall attempt an analysis of the important trends
of this movement in the hope that some conception of future
developments may be gained.

As an index of an important change, no writer on the
subject fails to mention the rising price of furs, although few
commodities present greater difficulties in a study of prices.
Fur is a commodity which varies in size and quality with
each species, with each animal, within each district, in the
same season, in different seasons, with the trapper, and
with the trader. The difficulty of determining a change in
price is usually great. Nevertheless, attempts which have
been made to show a rise in price have, in spite of innumerable
difficulties, been decidedly convincing. Herr Emil Brass1 has
collected prices on the London fur-market for No. 1 muskrat
from York Factory district from 1882 to 1910, showing a rise
from 16 cents to 47 cents in 1909 and 87 cents in 1910. No. 11
mink for the same period and district increased from 73 cents
to $6.34. No. 1 dark red fox increased from $3.11 to $16.55;
and No. 1 large lynx from $4.87 to $39.85. Prices of other
furs have shown a similar tendency.2 Australian oppossum
(Adelaide prime blue) increased during 1880 to 1910 from
16 cents to $1.95; wallaby from 10 cents to $1.70 (highest
prices); kangaroo from 12 cents to $1.45; wombat from 12
cents to 73 cents; native cats from 4 cents to 49 cents;
bastard chinchilla from 73 cents to $9.73; black fox (best
skin) from $632.70 to $2628.00; sea-otter from $584.00 to
$1703.33. During 1890 to 1910 Japan marten increased from
35 cents to $3.81, Japan fox from 83 cents to $4.05; raw
Persian from $2.05 to $6.70; stone marten from $1.43 to
$6.66; marmot (Orenburg) from 10 cents to 90 cents; and

‘Emil Brass, Aus dem Reiche der Pelze (Berlin, 1925), p. 437; also in J. W.
Jones, Fur-farming in Canada (Ottawa, 1914), p. 216; and graphically in Pro¬
ceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 3rd series, Vol. VIII,
p. LXIX.

*Emil Brass, op. cit., p. 438; J. W. Jones, op. cit., app. X, p. 215.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

from 1900 to 1910 Japan mink increased from 12 cents to
60 cents; Chinese weasel from 7 cents to 33 cents; skunk
(the best lot) from $2.07 to $7.06. A comparison of prices
during the war and the post-war periods shows an even more
pronounced rise.1 The various causes of the rise in prices
represent the subject of this study.

On the demand side, fur is a commodity which enters
into modern commerce because of its suitability as clothing.
Its warmth-giving qualities render it especially valuable for
peoples in the north and south temperate zones and the colder
regions. The relative scarcity of the important small fur¬
bearing animals and the dense population of these areas,
on the other hand, reduce the importance of fur as a product
contributing to the total clothing supply. The development
of textile industries, especially wool and cotton, as the staple
clothing commodities has made fur a minor product. It
has a decidedly limited use, and has developed as a sub¬
sidiary to the important articles of clothing. This sub¬
sidiary character of fur and its adaptation to limited demands
has given it special significance as outer clothing in the
decided seasonal character of temperate climates. Its use
is largely limited to the winter seasons. It is especially
adapted to outdoor wear in garments such as cloaks, which
can readily be put on when needed or taken off when not
essential to warmth, and muffs, scarfs, or trimmings which
are supplementary to cotton or woollen garments.

With these limitations manufactured fur garments repre¬
sent to the wearers an appreciable overhead charge. Con¬
sequently furs tend to be worn by more wealthy people.
The supply of furs in spite of these limitations is inadequate
to the manufacture of sufficient garments to meet the de¬
mands of a large population. Furs, because of their scarcity

lSee statistics of Hudson’s Bay Company’s auction sale prices, April, 1923,
January, 1924, and March and April, 1924. Emil Brass, op. cit., pp. 440-452.
For prices on the Leipzig fur market, 1914-1920, ibid., p. 439. For other price
lists see Reports of St. Louis fur sales, Montreal fur sales, New York auction
sales, Prices 'current of Hudson’s Bay Company’s fur sales, issued by P. R.
Poland and Son, and C. M. Lampson and Co. sales.

The Modern Demand for Furs

and consequent expensiveness, are limited to a relatively
small portion of the population. To a very large extent <r
furs1 have tended to become exclusively women’s apparel, and
the finer, more expensive, furs exclusively the apparel of
wealthy women. Fine furs become more valuable because
of their expensive character. V

/'The demand for furs,is located primarily in centres of ' , mT%
population which support a large leisure class. These are
areas with populations in which class distinctions have been
built up as inherently a part of the social organization, or
which have greatly increased the production of goods through
new processes, as in countries recently brought under the
sweep of machine industry, and in which a large surplus of
goods exists because of improved technique or reduced
consumption of a large part of the population. An important
characteristic of these areas is the growth of large cities2 3
made possible with the existence of a surplus of goods and
necessitated by the new technique of machine industry and
the factory system. Countries located within the temperate
zones over which the Industrial Revolution has spread,
including particularly Europe and North America, the
southern portions of South America and South Africa and
Australia, and countries which had built up an elaborate
social organization, such as China and (in the pre-war
period) Russia, are important consumers of furs. The more
densely populated of those areas and the largest cities con¬
stitute the more important markets. The demand has
increased tremendously with increasing population, increasing j-

urbanization, and the spread of machine industry. )

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ /

iThe thesis worked out in Thorstein Veblen, Theory of the Leisure Class
(New York 1899), as to the position of women in the leisure classes, appears
to be very much to the point with reference to this commodity Similar con¬
clusions are supported by W. Sombart, Luxus und Kapitalismus (Leipzig, 1913).

2See A. F. Weber, The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century (New York,

1899), Ch. Ill, passim. .

3Mr ) W. Jones places great stress on the automobile as a factor in the

increasing demand for furs. For mention of specific furs affected by the auto¬
mobile, see A. Belden, The Fur Trade of America (New York, 1918), p.223. Avia¬
tion has also had its effects. Ibid., p. 181.

II. PRICES OF FURS

A general statement1 of parallel figures for various furs
over a series of years cannot be accepted as positive proof of
absolute rise in price. Prices of furs have increased partly
as a result of the general rise in the prices of all commodities,
as shown, for instance, in the graph for wholesale prices
on page 21. The marked rise of fur prices2 during the wrar
and post-war periods was partly the result of currency changes
and general inflation.

Mr. Salter, in a study of prices3 of furs, has attempted an
.analysis of the situation to show the relative importance of
factors of demand and supply and of a general rising price
level. Recognizing the difficulty of using the price of one
grade of fur as an index, he has attacked the problem by
comparing the prices of a staple fur product (York Factory,
No. 1 muskrat) and the average prices of muskrat, and also
of fine fur (York Factory No. 1 dark red fox), with average
prices of red fox. He has constructed index numbers of both
prices of separate grades and average prices with the average

'For a comparison of peak prices of various furs in 1875, 1913, and 1920 ,
see Marcus Petersen, Petersen’s Fur Traders' Lexicon (New York, 1920), pp. 82-5.'
Various references are given to prices of furs during the past two centuries and
more, but the value of these price statistics for comparative purposes is greatly
overemphasized. In most cases no account is taken of the general change in
price levels. For a list of furs as compared in this way, see H. Lomer, Der Rauch-
warenhandel (Leipzig, 1864), pp. 20-21. See also, for an extended discussion of
long run factors determining fur prices, ibid., pp. 94-100.

’See the rising prices on the Leipzig market from 1914-1920, to a very large
extent the result of currency depreciation (E. Brass, op. cit., p. 439).

3Mr. P. E. Salter has given a general description of the various factors which
should be taken into account in the early part of his work. This includes refer¬
ences to sales organization, theories on fur production, fashions, substitution,
and other details. A large portion of the work is statistical. Data on prices
and sales are based entirely on his study, and no further reference will be given.
This study ls.available for further consultation at the Department of University
Extension, University of Toronto.

The Prices of Furs

price of 1890-1899 as a base. A correlation of +.98 has been
found for the muskrat prices, and an equally close correlation
for red fox prices is evident from the graphs 1 and 2. With
this close correlation he has assumed a statement of average
prices as a reliable guide for a study of the general trend.
For this purpose he has taken the prices1 of twelve important

Graph 1

^hese prices are taken from Hudson’s Bay Company’s auction sales. The
sales statistics also refer to the Hudson’s Bay Company. See J. W. Jones,
op. cit., pp. 203-214.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Canadian furs for the period from 1857 to 1911 — lynx, silver
fox, red fox, marten, mink, fisher, muskrat, wolf, wolverine,
skunk, land otter, and raccoon. To indicate the general
trend he has combined the average prices of these twelve
furs, and constructed index numbers with an average price
for 1867 to 1877 = 100. This base corresponds to the base
used in the Sauerbeck index numbers for wholesale prices.
Since the Sauerbeck index includes the same period they
have been used as an index of the general price levels (see

Graph 2

The Prices of Furs

Graph 3). The graphs show quite clearly that fur prices as
compared with wholesale prices begin to rise after 1880,
and in a most striking manner after 1900. Since the turning
of the century fur prices have increased to an unprecedented
extent. '

The general trend is shown in a decline from 1860 to 1871,
a marked increase from ,1872 to 1876, a period of relative

Graph 3

The Fur-Trade of Canada

stability from 1877 to 1898, and a rapid increase from 1899
to 1910. These changes correspond to a period of rising
wholesale prices from 1858 to 1864 and a decline to 1870,
rising prices to 1873, falling prices from 1873 to 1896, and
rising prices from 1897 to 1910. In the period frdm 1858 to
1871 an increasing supply of fur, following the opening of
new territory to competitors, was apparently responsible
for a decline in price. Increase in wholesale prices in the
succeeding period was apparently a part of the phenomenon
responsible for the rise in prices of furs. The period of
stability and rapidly rising prices during the later years was
the result of decreasing supply and increasing demand. A
further important characteristic of fur prices may be noted
in relation to wholesale prices. Fur prices are unusually
susceptible to a change in the price level — a characteristic
which is most striking after 1900. A period of prosperity
is the cause of a marked increase in prices, and a depression
is the cause of a marked decline. Fluctuations are unusually
violent, and react immediately to changes in business con¬
ditions.

Similar tendencies are difficult to detect in the period
following 1910. Mr. Salter has taken four furs — -mink (dark),
muskrat (best winter and fall), raccoon, and skunk (black,
Canadian) — for which prices have been given by the Depart¬
ment of Labour for the period 1890-1924. A combined
index number has been constructed with the average 1890-9 =
100 (see Graph 4). Wholesale prices continued to rise steadily
from 1910 to 1914, ve*ry rapidly to 1920, declined to 1922,
and rose steadily to 1924. Fur prices rose steadily to 1913,
declined rapidly to 1915, increased to a very marked extent
to 1920, declined to 1921, increased in 1922, but fell off in
1923-24. The decline in 1915, the rise in 1922, and the
decline in 1923-24 were points of divergence from the trend
of wholesale prices. The variation in 1915 was the result of
the disappearance of an important part of the European
market. The fur markets in the later post-war years have
failed to reach a position of stability as a result of general

The Prices of Furs

economic conditions and the position of Russia as an
important producer. The effects of the war on the fur-
trade preclude an analysis as to general trends. This index
number of four furs, all of which are staple furs, and two of
which are relatively coarse furs, shows more closely the
relation between fur prices and business fluctuations. The

Graph 4

The Fur-Trade of Canada

index number (1857-1911) included, in addition to these four
staple furs, a large percentage of fine fur. As a result this
index number fluctuates more rapidly and responds more
quickly to changes in business conditions. The later index
number (1890-1924) follows the general trend of wholesale
prices much more closely.1

From a general survey it may be tentatively concluded
(1) that the change in price level has been due in the long
run to a decrease in supply, especially since 1900; (2) that
demand has also increased since that date; (3) that short
run changes in demand are effective in producing price
changes of all furs, but especially of fine furs ; (4) that long
run changes in demand and supply have been most effective
in the prices of fine furs; (5) that the business cycle is an
important factor in short-run changes in price level.

The value of these tentative conclusions may be tested
with reference to specific furs. The demand for furs has been
described2 as the result of several factors. “The qualities
which make a fur desired depend first of all on the nature
of the fur itself. Pretty colour, lustre, thickness, softness,
length, uniformity and regular fall of the hair are the chief
points to be considered. While the leather part of the hair
is of secondary importance in the evaluation of a fur, it
must possess strength, lightness of weight, and when properly
dressed would be supple and have a certain firmness or
'feel’. The abundance or scarcity of a fur-bearing animal
also determines the value of the fur. ... A third factor
which has an influence on the value of furs is the prevailing
style of fashion.”

1A suggestion is made that the prices of fur collected for the report on
wholesale prices to 1917 were inadequate in representing the price situation of
the fur market. Muskrat (best winter and fall) was a lower grade than spring.
Raccoon and skunk were staple furs, but not representative of northern areas.
Mink was the only fur which might be regarded as a higher priced fine fur. The
inclusion of marten and fox would have done much to offset these tendencies.
The present wholesale prices on fur might be improved by the inclusion of other
fur prices.

2See W. E. Austin, Principles and Practice of Fur Dyeing (New York, 1922).

The Prices of Furs

Silver fox has been regarded as a fur of the highest value.
Mr. Salter has shown graphically the relation between the
numbers of silver fox sold and the price level during the
period 1857-1911 (see Graph 5). The conclusion immediately
suggests itself that the 'factor of supply is important. An
increase in supply is represented generally by a fall in price
and a decrease in supply by a rise in price. The highest

Graph 5

The Fur-Trade of Canada

points in numbers sold occur in 1860, 1869, 1878, 1888,
1897, and 1907, and the lowest points in prices in 1871,
1877, 1885, 1888, 1897, 1901, 1904 and 1907. The lowest
points in numbers sold occur in 1865, 1874, 1884, 1891,
1902, and 1910, and the highest points in prices in 1861,
1875, 1884, 1893, 1900, 1903, 1906, and 1910. The nine to
ten year cycle in production has a noticeable effect on prices.

Graph 6

The Prices of Furs

Supply, as shown especially in the peak years of 1869 and
1897, affected prices. Throughout the period the total
supply has changed slightly. A possible decline toward the
end of the period should be offset in the succeeding years
by an increase from fox-farming. Fluctuations were even
more violent than in the case of the combined index. Silver
fox is essentially a luxury' product responding with unusual
rapidity to changes in economic conditions. The general
tendency appears to show an increasing demand, especially
since 1900. This tendency was fostered by the difficulty of
making substitutes, since the silver hair cannot be imitated,
by the increasing use of substitutes for other furs, and by
inherent scarcity and expensiveness. Fashion probably
exercises a less direct effect on prices of silver fox. The
importance of this fur to Canada is partly indicated by
the effect of a fluctuating supply of Canadian furs in the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s sales and its effect on prices.

The close relationship between the silver fox and the
red fox warrants a consideration of the latter. Mr. Salter
has found a very high correlation of +.948 in prices, a
correlation of +.74 in numbers (see Graph 6). The high
and low points of production correspond with low and high
points in price level as in the case of silver fox. On the
other hand, there are important differences. Supply fluctu¬
ated much more widely than with silver fox. Throughout
the period the tendency toward a decline was more pro¬
nounced. But in spite of much greater fluctuation in supply,
prices fluctuated much less widely. Prices tended to decline
to 1897, but rose rapidly after that year. Price fluctuations
correspond much more closely to wholesale prices. The
causes of the variations include the general character of red
fox as a more staple fur than silver fox, and the greater
possibilities of substitution through imitation. Red fox is
less violently affected by business conditions. Fashions have
a more important influence. But it still remains a product
with similar tendencies to those shown in silver fox. It is
again an important Canadian product.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Land otter is a species of fine fur which shows tendencies
similar to fox (see Graph 7). The number of land otters sold
through the Hudson Bay Company’s auction has steadily
declined from the high point of 1866. This decline has been
accompanied by varying fluctuations of approximately three
years’ average. The relation between fluctuations of prices
and production is evident, but not obvious. Prices are

Graph 7

The Prices of Furs

influenced throughout the period by declining supply, but
other factors are important. Declining supply becomes more
obvious after 1888. Rising prices become conspicuous from
the same date. In the period prior to 1890 prices reached
the highest points in 1859, 1873, 1882, and 1889; and the
lowest points in 1865, 1878, and 1885. These fluctuations
are apparently explained by changes in fashion, and possibly

Graph 8

The Fur-Trade of Canada

by the general fur situation. After 1890, and especially after
1900, otter follows fluctuations similar to those of red fox.
Its increasing scarcity and its value as a fine fur have placed
it on a basis in which changes in economic conditions are
reflected sharply in prices. The tendency of land otter to
take on similar characteristics to those of fine furs is significant
in the general trend of fur prices. It becomes less subject to
the influence of fashion as it becomes more scarce. The
prices of sea otter throw very little light on the general
problem. The marked increase in price and practical ex¬
tinction of the fur suggest problems of the future following
the evident decline in more valuable furs. Disappearance
and scarcity of most valuable furs leads to an increase in
demand for furs only less valuable.

Fluctuations in the supply of fisher follow definite cycles
of nine and ten years (see Graph 8). Price fluctuations are
affected by these supply cycles, but demand is again im¬
portant. From the highest point of production in 1870 the
supply has steadily declined throughout the period, reaching
the lowest point in 1905. Prices, on the other hand, have
also declined from the highest point in 1876 to 1904, increasing
rapidly from that date. Fluctuations show a striking
similarity to those of otter. On the other hand, price changes
were much less pronounced as a result of the definite cyclical
supply. After 1908 fisher prices increased rapidly, and the
fur was apparently added in a more definite fashion to the
list of furs which became expensive through scarcity.

Marten (see Graph 9) is also a fur which has definite
cycles of production of nine and ten years, the peak of
production coming three and four years earlier than fisher,1
and two or three years earlier than red fox and lynx. In
the earlier part of the period 1857-1911 prices are affected
closely by supply. In the later period the influence of
changes in supply are less conspicuous. Throughout the
period numbers decline steadily, and especially after 1894.

*E. T. Seton has stated from this evidence that lynx and fisher are enemies
of marten. See his Life Histories of Northern Animals, p. 919.

The Prices of Furs

Prices declined from a high point in 1872 to 1894, and
increased rapidly after that date. From 1894 to 1911
fluctuations were similar to those of land otter and red fox,
although marten prices were much steadier than either of
these furs. During the earlier period marten prices responded
more quickly to changes in supply, and followed very closely
the price fluctuations of' fisher. Throughout the period
marten and fisher prices have a low correlation of +.39.

Graph 9

560

340

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- M/rrriter cf /forTer? /k7/s //udscn Co's Saies /257-/P/ Piertrpe /£6’777

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\ 1
\ 1

\ »

\ 1
\ 1

% /

. /

-ft*

/\ /

«./

/ i

\_ .

/ *

t ~\

f \

300-

2&0

260

240

220

ISO

160

140

100

401

las? 60 63 66 69 72 75 73 81 84 87 90 93 % 9? 1952 05 08 II

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Marten is essentially a staple fine fur, and consequently the
pronounced rise after 1894 and 1897 was a part of the general
movement. On the other hand, neither the rise was as
rapid nor the fluctuations as violent as in such expensive
furs as red fox and silver fox.

Mink (see Graph 10) is in many ways closely dependent
on fluctuations in marten. Prices of marten and mink have
a correlation of +.882. Supply fluctuates with a seven to

Graph 10

The Prices of Furs

twelve year cycle, the peak usually falling two or three years
later than marten. Sales tend to increase to 1885 and to
decrease after that date, reaching the lowest point in 1909.
Prices follow the trend shown with marten as is indicated in
the high correlation, beginning at the highest point in 1872,
declining more rapidly because of the greatly increased
supply in 1886, but rising generally after 1894. Fluctuations

Graph 10

The Fur-Trade of Canada

were not as marked as in the case of red fox, but they reflected
changes in economic conditions in a similar fashion. The
relative stability of mink prices is shown in a correlation of
— .49 between the number of mink sold and prices during
the period 1900-1911. Mink is also a staple fine fur caught
over wider areas than marten. During the period 1910 to

Graph 11

The Prices of Furs

1924 mink prices declined to 1915; they increased rapidly
to 1920, declined to 1923, and rose in 1924.

Lynx (see Graph 11) is the classic instance of cyclical
production, because of its dependence on the rabbit. Its
high points of production correspond with a nine and ten
year cycle, and follow that of fox. The coefficient of cor¬
relation between the numbers of lynx and fox sold is +.695.
The highest points were reached in 1868 and in 1888, the
smaller peaks occurring in 1858, 1878, 1897. Throughout
the period a slight tendency toward a decline is evident..
Fluctuations in supply are reflected directly in prices. The
years 1861, 1886, 1889, 1894, 1901, and 1904 appear to show
the influence of other factors. As with other furs, the rise
after 1900 becomes most prominent, and supply appears to
be of less effect. The coefficient for the whole period (1857-
1911) between numbers and prices is —.28, and for the
period 1857-1900 is -.49. Prices of lynx follow very closely
prices of red fox, giving an unusual coefficient of .98. The
conditions of demand for the two furs are undoubtedly
similar. Both furs are in demand for similar goods — scarves,
muffs, and trimmings.

The furs hitherto discussed are generally described as
fine furs. Prices are, as a rule, at a high level, and the
animals are caught in all years. A marked increase in price
will affect the supply to a slight extent. Greater efforts may
be made to secure a larger number by trapping, and more
trappers may concentrate on these furs; but on the whole
the increase will not be pronounced, since these furs are the
occasion for most of the trapping activity in any case. A
discussion of muskrat and skunk as animals in which a rise
in price may lead to a marked increase in supply .should, give
interesting results. Moreover, these furs become increasingly
the basis for imitations of the more expensive furs.

Muskrat accordingly has a cyclical production of approxi¬
mately ten years (see Graphs 12a and 12b). The high points of
production occur, however, at points of low production for lynx
and other animals. Flight prices and scarcity of finer urs

The Fur-Trade of Canada

lead to an increase in the demand for muskrat, and to an
increase in production. The general tendency of sales is
decidedly upward— an indication not of increasing numbers,
but of increased trapping following the rise in price and
scarcity of finer furs. Decline in production conversely
follows an increase in the sales of other furs. The natural
cycle for muskrat, on the other hand, may follow the cycle

Graph 12a

The Prices of Furs

for other animals inversely — a marked increase in muskrat
population occurring during a period of decline for other
animals. Muskrat prices are also related to the prices of
other furs. A marked increase in production is accompanied
by a fall in price and a' decline in production by a rise in
price. A cycle in which increasing supply leads to decreasing
price and in turn to a decreasing supply and a rising price,

Graph 12b

The Fur-Trade of Canada

followed by an increase in supply, appears to be evident.
During the period 1910 to 1924 muskrat prices appear to
have fluctuated in the manner characteristic of fur prices in
those years. The increasing importance of muskrat in the
manufacture of substitutes for more expensive furs has led
to marked increase in production and to a general tendency
toward higher prices.

The Prices of Furs

Skunk (see Graphs 13a and 13b) has a cyclical production of
nine to ten years in the later years corresponding closely with
lynx. Production increased to 1886, but fell off in later years,
especially after the high point in 1907. Prices fluctuated
with supply, but not in the pronounced fashion which might
be expected from marked increases in production. Prices

The Fur-Trade of Canada

declined from the highest point in 1872 to the lowest point
in 1898, and rose steadily to 1907 and rapidly after that date.
In the period after 1910 prices followed a trend similar to
other furs. Skunk is a fur which came rapidly into pro¬
minence as a staple product following the rising prices of
finer furs and the increasing demand for furs. As with other
furs, evidences of a decline are apparent.

Graph 14a

The Prices of Furs

Statistics of the supply of raccoon (see Graphs 14a and 14b)
are not adequate to a careful study. Price fluctuations are un¬
usually rapid and abrupt. Prices rise steadily to a high point in
1888, decline to 1898, rise to 1907, and show the usual
fluctuations resulting from business conditions. The rise is
unusually rapid from 1908 to 1911. During later years,
1910-1924, prices followed 'the general trend of other furs.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Wolf skins (see Graph 15) show a tendency to decline
from highest points of sales in 1859 and 1866 to 1905. Pro¬
duction follows a nine and ten year cycle. Prices are affected
closely by fluctuations in supply. On the whole, prices have
remained unusually stable as compared with other furs even
after 1900. Wolf is not a fine fur, and being of a coarse hair,

Graph 15

The Prices of Furs

more difficult to adapt to imitations, it has not entered the
general movements of furs to a pronounced degree.

Wolverine (see Graph 16) is also a coarse fur, in demand
largely among Eskimos and trappers rather than in the fine
fur market. Supply fluctuates with eight to ten year cycles,
and prices change in directly opposite fashion. The supply,
on the whole, has declined. < Prices have risen throughout the
period. The rise in price in the latter part of the period

Graph 16

The Fur-Trade of Canada

corresponds closely with wolf rather than other furs. The
two prices have a correlation of +.60.

The evidence regarding the change in the price level of
furs since 1857 may be briefly summarized in the accompany¬
ing chart (Table A). With all furs the tendency toward a
decrease in sales after 1900, and the tendency toward higher
price levels after that date, is shown in the grouping of minus
signs for sales and plus signs for prices. Throughout the
period large sales tend to be grouped about a ten year cycle,
1857-60, 1866-70, 1878-9, 1884-8, 1897-8, 1907-8. Low prices
are significant, 1858, 1867-71, 1878, 1885, 1897, 1904, and
1911. After 1900 prices fluctuate much more widely, indicat¬
ing that supply occupies a relatively less important position
as a determining factor. Low sales are grouped about the
periods 1861-5, 1870-4, 1880-4, 1891-2, 1901-2, 1905, 1909-10,
and high prices are pronounced in 1863-4, 1872-3, 1893,
1900, 1903, 1910. Again, after 1900, high prices are

much more conspicuous and less closely related to supply.
The long run situation appears to show a decline in pro¬
duction after 1900, but of much greater importance, a
marked increase in demand. Short run tendencies, the
result of changes in fashion and of business fluctuations,
become increasingly important with rising prices, but, on
the other hand, the effects of these fluctuations on the
increasing values is less pronounced.

Further light is thrown on the situation through reference
to individual furs. Evidence of a rise in prices is most con¬
spicuous for the rarest and most expensive furs, as shown in
silver fox and red fox. Later, however, the rise becomes
conspicuous for the more common fur, such as muskrat and
skunk. Already it might be said that these have ceased
to be recognized as common fur.

The significance of this situation to Canada cannot be
overemphasized. A study of Hudson’s Bay Company sales
and prices has specific bearing on Canadian production. The
period ynder consideration was characterized by increasing
competition, and it cannot be urged that these sales repre-

TABLE A: CHANGE IN PRICE LEVEL OP' FURS

Sales ~ Prices

Lynx

Red fox

Silver fox

Marten

Mink

-C

Land otter

Muskrat

Wolverine

Wolf

Skunk

1 Lynx

Red fox

Silver fox

Marten

Mink

Fisher

Land otter

Muskrat

Wolverine

Wolf

Skunk

C-

1857 . . .

—

=fc

-t

1858 . . .

✓

1859. . .

1860. . .

1861 . . .

—

1862 . . .

—

1863 . . .

—

1864 . . . .

—

1865 . . . .

—

1866. . . .

—

1837. . . .

—

: 1868 . . . .

1869 . . . .

1870.. ..

—

1 1871 . . . .

—

] 1872 ....

11873. . . .

—

11874. . . .

—

1 1S75 ....

11876.. ..

11877. . . .

—

11878. . . .

—

11879. . . .

—

11880. . . .

—

11881 ....

11882 ....

11883 ....

—

11884 ....

—

11885 ....

TABLE A {Cent.)

Sales Prices

Lynx

Red fox

Silver fox

Marten

Mink

Fisher

Land otter

Muskrat

Wolverine

Wolf

Skunk

Lynx

Red fox

Silver fox

Marten

Mink

Fisher

Land otter

Muskrat

Wolverine

Wolf

Skunk

Raccoon

1886. . . .

1887 ....

1888 ....

—

1889. . . .

1890. . . .

—

1891 ....

—

1892 ....

1893 ....

1894 ....

—

1895 ....

1896 ....

1897 ....

—

1898. . . .

—

1899 ....

—

1600 ....

1901 ....

—

1902 ....

1903.. ..

1904. . ..

—

1905 ....

—

1906.. ..

—

1907. . . .

—

1908. . . .

—

1909. . . .

1910. . . .

1911 . . . .

—

+ High points of sales and prices.
dfcHighest points of sales and prices.
—Low points of sales and prices.
•“Lowest points of sales and prices.

The Prices of Furs

sent a monopoly condition controlled by the Hudson’s Bay
Company. The close relation between prices and supply
throughout the period illustrates Canada’s importance as a
producer of these furs. Since the furs under consideration
are primarily fine furs dependent for production on a north
temperate climate, and on large unsettled areas, Canada
has found herself in an unusually fortunate position.

On the other hand, new problems have arisen. Rising
prices have been responsible for an increase in competition
in the fur-trade, for an increase in trapping, and for de¬
struction of the animals concerned. These problems were
seriously enhanced during the unusually high prices of the
war period. Larger numbers of competitors and trappers
became interested in furs, with far-reaching results. On the
whole, a period of rising prices has been responsible for
increased attention to fur-farming, to new regulations for the
conservation of fur- bearing animals, and to greater attention
to the fur industry. The period of uncertainty existing at
the present time has been partly a result. The period was
responsible for a hastening of the spread of western civilization
among more primitive tribes. The problems arising there¬
from have occasioned new regulations for the protection of
the Indians.

Undoubtedly fur prices have risen, but the rise attributed
to the whole period is most characteristic of the period after
1900, and in reference to the most expensive furs.

✓

III. THE PRODUCTION OF FURS
§1. Conservation

The rise in world prices and the increasing demand for
fine furs has led to the wholesale destruction of important
fur-bearing animals. In all countries this tendency has led to
regulations directed to the conservation of these animals, and
has become especially noticeable since 1900. It is proposed
to give considerable attention to the extent and character of
these regulations in Canada,1 as a basis for an appreciation
of general world tendencies.

Governmental regulation of the production of furs has
certain inherent difficulties. Furs are obtained over wide
areas. They are unusually light and valuable. The animals
may be caught, and the furs transported over long distances,
without detection by the authorities. Animals which need
- protection are scarce, their furs are valuable, and they may
*:,*’be caught easily. A constant temptation exists to violate
regulations prohibiting capture. Moreover, protection
' renders the furs more valuable, increases prices, and pro¬
vokes a situation in which the temptation toward violation
is more conspicuous, and the necessity for rigid protection
more urgent. Protection has developed under conditions in
which improved transportation facilities have made its
enforcement more difficult, and in which improved methods
of trapping and higher prices have made enforcement in¬
creasingly necessary.

The growth of regulative machinery has been dependent
on the development of administrative bodies in general.

‘Mr. H. E. Dougall, in a study on “Government regulation of the fur-trade”,
has discussed the Canadian situation in considerable detail. The facts presented
herewith art based largely on his material. The work which he has done is
available on application to the Department of University Extension, University
of Toronto.

Conservation

During the period of company control enforcement of regula¬
tions restricting production was carried out with greater
effectiveness. But even with effective monopoly control
considerable evidence exists to show the difficulties of limiting
production. Indian trappers were spread over wide areas <r~
in no immediate contact with the posts, and regulations were
enforced with difficulty. Price adjustments were in part
effective in concentrating the attention of trappers on certain
animals. Refusal to purchase furs meant not restriction of
production, but the use of these furs by the Indians for
clothing. Evidence also shows that the company found it
difficult to enforce its regulations on production because of
the lassitude of the post managers. This was shown as
clearly in the English period as in the French regime.

With the increase in settlement, and the development of
transportation facilities, monopoly control of production
became increasingly difficult, and began to break down.

This was especially the case after the creation of the Dominion
of Canada, with its federal structure, in 1867. No mention
is made of the fur-trade in the British North America Act,
and it has fallen to the separate provinces to design regula¬
tions. Regulations which had previously been enforced over
a vast area by a central authority were now divided among
the newly created provinces. In the older provinces of
Ontario and Quebec, and in the maritime provinces, settle¬
ment had begun much earlier, and regulations of the fur-
trade had naturally been worked out and elaborated at an

early period. .

Regulation followed the sweep of economic development

and settlement. The necessity of protection began at a much
earlier date. Protection was essential for animals which
were easily caught, which produced valuable fur, which
increased slowly, and consequently tended to disappear. n
New Brunswick beaver were first fully protected, with a
fine of $20 to $50 for any infringement, for two years after
March 20, 1897. This provision was extended for another
two years in 1899, and for various intervals thereafter until

The Fur-Trade of Canada

1913. In that year permission was given for the trapping of
a limited number of beaver, and a royalty of $2.00 was charged
on each skin. After July 1, 1916, prohibition was continued
at various intervals, and trapping of beaver is at present
prohibited to November 1, 1927. In Nova Scotia, with
consolidation of the game laws in 1896, beaver was protected
to 1900. Open season was permitted after that year in the
period from November to March. In 1903 full protection
was granted, with a penalty of $100 for violation. In 1905
otter was given full protection until 1910, but the Act was
repealed in 1906. In 1909 marten was given full protection.

Quebec has found it necessary .to adopt similar measures.
In 1899 the province was divided into two zones, (l)all the
province, excluding the counties of Chicoutimi and Saguenay
to the east and north of the Saguenay river; (2) parts of the
counties not in zone 1. This arrangement permitted special
protection in Chicoutimi and Saguenay. In zone 1 full
protection was given to beaver until 1902. In 1906 protection
was extended until 1912. Beaver have since been trapped
for the benefit of the Crown in cases where their activities
became destructive to property. Protection also has been
given for the black bear. The zone system has been an
interesting example of a method by which allowance could
be made for climatic differences which exist in a large area.
In Ontario beaver and otter were protected from 1898 to
1900. Beaver protection was later extended to 1905 and
to 1910 and 1916. In 1911 permission could be granted
for the destruction of beaver in cases where they were the
cause of considerable damage.

Manitoba prohibited the trapping of beaver in 1898, and
included otter in 1900. This provision was relaxed in 1913.
In Saskatchewan regulations were enacted in 1905 prohibiting
the trapping of beaver until 1915. In 1912 the regulation
was extended to 1920. This was modified in 1916 by per¬
mission to trap beaver north of the Churchill River. At
present protection exists for beaver in townships numbered
1 to 52 until 1930; and north of township 52 the usual close

Conservation

season, May 1 to November 1, is in force. Alberta gave *
protection to beaver from 1907 to 1912, but in 1909 protection
of beaver was suspended within territories and under con¬
ditions determined by the government. In 1915 beaver were
protected to 1920, and later to 1925. British Columbia has <r
made little progress in the full protection of fur-bearing
animals.

In most of the provinces definite attempts have been
made to increase the supply of certain animals, especially
beaver and otter, by full protection over a fixed period.
This form of protection has been supplemented by legislation
regarding the season in which animals may be caught,
methods of capture, and other related devices. The aim of
the protection has been primarily to increase the supply of
furs, but also to prevent waste through trapping unprime

An important step in the conservation of animal life has
been the adoption on the part of all the provinces, at different
periods, of regulations prohibiting the use of poison. The
effect of poison1 on the skins of the animals, but more par¬
ticularly the far reaching destruction of animal life, because
of its spread to animals other than those directly caught,
has been responsible for the universal condemnation of its

use.

Other regulations have been adopted by various provinces
directed to the same ends. In Ed nce_Edward Island the
Fish and Game Protection Act of 1906 laid down close
seasons for marten and otter from April 1 to November 1,
with penalties for violation of $1.00 to $25.00. In 1897 New
Brunswick fixed a close season for mink, fisher, and sable
(marten) from May 1 to September 1, with a penalty of
$5.00 to $20.00 fine, or five to twenty days in jail for violation.
The close season for muskrat in the counties of King and
Sunbuty was fixed at June 10 to March 10 of the following
year, with a penalty of $5.00 for each violation. These

iSee a paper by R. T. Congdon of Dawson, given before the first annual
meeting of the Commission of Conservation, 1910.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

regulations have been improved, and the close season for
mink, otter, fisher, and sable lengthened from March 31 to
November 1; the close season for foxes is from March 1 to
October 1, for muskrat from May 1 to March 25 in the
counties of Westmoreland, Albert, St. Johns, Kings, Sunbury,
York, and Charlotte, and from May 25 to March 25 in Kent,
Northumberland, Gloucester, Restigouche, Madawaska,
Victor, and Carleton. Shooting of muskrat is prohibited.
In Nova Scotia (1896) close season was fixed for mink from
March 1 to November 1. In 1909 regulations prohibited
the destruction of, or the setting of traps near, muskrat
houses. In 1913 it became illegal to take fur-bearing animals
from their burrows or dens by smoking or digging them out.

In Quebec similar measures have been followed. Close
seasons were fixed in zone 1 for mink, otter, martefrr-fox,
afld raccoon, from April 1 to November 1. Close seasons
were also given for muskrat and bear. In 1906 in zone 1
muskrat was given a close season only in April. As early as
1868 Ontario introduced legislation with close seasons for
beaver, muskrat, mink, sable, otter, and fisher from May 1
to November 1, with a fine of $2.00 to $25.00 for each skin.
In 1897 muskrat were protected in April, and the destruction
of muskrat houses forbidden. The extension of the Ontario
boundary has been responsible for new provisions. In 1924
regulations were made prohibiting trapping of beaver and
otter in the territory “lying south of the French River, Lake
Nipissing, and the Mattawa River and in such territories
south of a line due east and west thereof until January 1,
1926”. A close season was fixed in all other parts of the
province from March 31 to December 15. In Manitoba a
similar problem has arisen. In 1915 longer open seasons
were provided for the capture of marten, fox, lynx, and
muskrat north of the 53rd parallel of latitude than south
of that line.

The prairie provinces have not deviated materially from
the general lines of legislation of the other provinces. Mani¬
toba has a close season for muskrat, although this regulation

Conservation

may be overridden by municipal by-laws in cases of de¬
struction by those animals. In 1905 Saskatchewan fixed
close seasons for minkv fisher, marten, otter, and muskrat.

In 1907 Alberta fixed a close season for the same animals.

In 1911 it became illegal to molest the houses of muskrats
and the houses and dams of beavers in trapping. In 1915
foxes were placed on the close season list. Muskrat are at
present fully protected south of the north Saskatchewan, and
have a close season to the north. North of the 55th parallel
the season has been thrown open for beaver from time to
time as the situation demanded. In 1918 permits1 expiring
May 1 yearly were granted on payment of $1.00 to trappers
south of the fifty-fifth parallel. The furs were sold to the
government, and 75 per cent, of the proceeds returned
to the ..trapper.

, Close seasofis are fixed for bear, otter, and marten in
British Columbia by order-in-council from year to year.

This arrangement permits greater elasticity in regulations
than is the rule in other provinces. It is illegal to destroy
beaver or muskrat houses. Similar elasticity of regulations
prevails in the northwest Territories through the supervision
of the Territorial Council. In the Yukon Territory longer
open seasons are given for beaver, otter, lynx, marten, mink,
muskrat, and fox, north of the Arctic circle than to the south.

In the Northwest Territories close seasons were fixed in
1885 for mink, fisher, marten, otter, beaver, and muskrat. j
In 1894 similar legislation was enacted and extended.2

The development of machinery for the enforcement of
regulations has necessarily been slow and uncertain. An
important part of the machinery has been the establishment
of devices of control over trappers and traders to prevent
illegal trapping and the trading of furs secured illegally.

In Prince Edward Island residents are required to pay a
licence fee of $15.00 and non-residents of $20.00. In New

1Report of the National Commission of Conservation, 1918.

2See Regulations for the Protection of Game in the Northwest Territories for a
full statement of present legislation.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Brunswick the regulations for 1897 prohibited the buying
and selling of the pelts of protected animals during the close
season, although these regulations were altered to allow game
wardens to issue written permits for the sale of pelts within
ten days after the close season began. The alteration allowed
the trapper to carry on his work to the last day of the open
season. Later regulations increased the effectiveness of these
provisions in providing heavier penalties for the possession
or sale of green pelts of protected animals during the close
season. In 1909 licences were issued to trade and dress furs
for $25.00 to non-residents and $2.00 to residents. Non¬
resident trappers were required to pay $25.00 for a licence.
Traders were required to keep records of the date of purchase
and of the name and residence of the seller of each skin.
Heavy penalties were imposed for each default. Under
existing regulations bona fide residents pay $10.00 to trap
or trade in furs, and non-residents $50.00. All raw furs are
stamped by an officer of the Department of Lands and Mines.
Royalties must be paid on furs before permission is given to
export from the province. Nova Scotia in 1896 required
non-residents to pay $30.00 for a 'trapper’s licence, although
non-residents paying over $20.00 taxes on property owned in
the province were exempted. Penalties of $50.00 to $100.00
were attached to a violation of these arrangements. In 1902
the licence fee was raised to $40.00; at present it is $50.00.
In 1907 the export of furs was prohibited. To prevent
smuggling to other provinces, and the New England States,
exports of furs by licence-holders were permitted in 1909,
with a written permit from the warden. Accurate informa¬
tion is gained through rigid inspection by the warden. At
present it is illegal to trade green pelts of beaver, fisher, or
marten. The sale of other pelts cannot be carried on after
three days from the. expiration of the open period. Fur-
buyers’ licences are issued to non-residents for $100.00 and
to residents for $25.00. Monthly reports are sent by holders
, of licences on the number and character of purchases and
\ sales. Royalties are paid on skins exported, tanned and

Ho o>i -

^7 UJj <J • Conservation

dressed, or sold to non-residents — red fox 75c, otter $1.00,
cross fox $1.50, silver fox $2.00, mink 40c, raccoon 20c,
skunk 15c, muskrat 5c, weasel 3c.

Quebec, has developed similar regulations. Skins of
protected animals may be sold during the first few days of
the close season. Licences are issued to trappers. In 1906
each trader in furs was required to send a return of the
number and species of furs taken, bought, and sold in the
province. Fines for violation of this regulation were made
increasingly severe, and in 1910 the penalty was $100 for
each offense. In 1906 royalties were charged on each skin
similar to those charged in Nova Scotia. In 1916 fur traders’
permits were issued on payment of $10.00. At present non¬
resident traders’ licence fees are $100.00 and resident traders’
$25.00. Detailed rules and heavy penalties have been worked
out to provide adequate control of the trade. Tanners and
dressers are required to report whether skins received have
been stamped by the government. Beginning in 1917, the j
government had successfully brought the fur- trade under v
control in its requirements as to the payment of royalties
and the stamping of furs. During the first year of operation
the government collected royalties on $1,500,000 — a partial
indication of its effectiveness. Ontario adopted the licence
system in 1908. Non-residents were required to pay $10.00
to trap. The system was rapidly extended, and in 1914
every person engaged in the fur-trade was required to pur¬
chase a licence. Resident trappers’ licence fees were $5.00.

In 1924 special licences were necessary to take beaver and
otter. Tanners and dressers operate under a licence ($10.00),
and are required to make monthly returns on skins purchased.
Royalties are charged — bear 60c, fisher $1.50, cross fox $1.50,
red fox 75c, black fox $10.00, white fox $1.50, lynx 50c,
marten $1.00, mink 25, muskrat 5c, raccoon 10c, skunk 10c,
ermine 5c, wolverine 40c, beaver $1.00, otter $2.00. Heavy
fur-dealers’ licence fees have taken on a protectionist char¬
acter for Ontario industry. Resident British subjects pay
$25.00 “store licence”, resident British subjects, with no

The Fur-Trade of Canada

particular place of business, “travelling for buyers , $100,

and non-residents $200. _ f

As early as 1890 in Manitoba non-resident trappers
licence fees were $25.00*^ilcFirl 1890 $50. In 1902 exportation
of pelts was limited to licence-holders. In 1913 the licence
system was extended, resident trappers paying 50c, non¬
resident trappers who were British subjects $25.00, and
foreigners $100. Non-residents were permitted to trade with
the Indians on payment of $50. Reports were required as
usual on the number of skins handled. At present trappers’
licence fees are, for resident British subjects, $2.00, for non¬
resident British subjects, $50.00, -for resident aliens, $2.00,
for non-resident aliens, $200; traders’ licence fees are, for
the raw fur merchant, $10.00, for the travelling agent, $10.00,
for the travelling fur buyer, $25.00. Royalties are paid on
skins, and fines of $100.00 to $500.00 are imposed for violation
of this regulation. Saskatchewan also extended its licence
system in 1913. Fur-dealers’ licence fees were $10.00, and
resident trappers’ $25.00. Dealers were required to make
detailed reports on furs traded. In 1916 legislation required
shipments of furs to bear an official tag supplied with each
licence, and railway companies were forbidden to accept
shipments not properly marked. At present resident trappers’
licence fees are $2.00, non-resident fees $25.00, fees for resi¬
dent fur-dealers $10.00, for non-resident $50.00, for travelling
dealers resident $50.00, for non-resident $100.00, for fur-
dealers’ agents, resident, first permit $50.00, additional
permits $10.00 each, for non-resident $100.00, for wholesale
fur-dealers’ licence $100.00, for tanners and dressers $10.00.
Elaborate reports are required from trappers, traders, tanners,
and dressers, on the skins handled. Royalties are charged
at the rate of five per cent, on the average market value of
each skin. Heavy penalties are attached to violation.
Alberta in 1907 charged a licence fee for non-resident trappers
of $10.00, and for trappers’ guides of $5.00. At present
resident trappers’ licence fees are $2.00, and non-resident
$25.00. Royalties vary at different periods. British

Conservation

Columbia licence fees (resident) are $10.00. Non-residents
are not permitted to trap. Licenced trappers occupying a
trap line prior to November 14 are protected against other
trappers. Resident traders’ licence fees are $25.00, non¬
resident traders $200.00. A limited system of royalty pay¬
ments is provided. Furs may be exported only during the
open season and two months thereafter. Provision is made
for adequate reports on the number of furs caught and
handled. Yukon territory non-resident trappers’ fees are
$100.00. Residents do not require licences. Resident fur-
buyers’ fees are $25.00, non-resident fees $150.00. Furs
are exported under permit on payment of an export tax.
The Northwest Territories’ regulations for 1893 required a
licence fee of $5.00 from non-residents. At present bona fide
residents of the territory pay trappers’ licence fees of $2.00,
non-resident British subjects $75.00, and aliens $150.00;
bona fide resident traders pay a fee of $5.00, non-resident
British subjects $150.00, aliens $300.00. Residence refers to
British subjects who have lived four years in the Northwest

Territories.

The collection of fees has been necessary not only as a j
means of control, but to offset the increasing cost of effective
regulation. Each province has developed its own adminis¬
trative machinery. In Prince Edward Island enforcement of
regulations is placed in the hands of regularly appointed
game guardians, as well as constables, police, and eve
market clubs. A game inspector is appointed to supervise
general enforcement, and has power to confiscate game, ;
furs, and equipment on proof of illegality. New Brunswick
in 1897 planned the appointment of a game warden for each
county. Each game warden appointed deputy game wardens
subject to the approval of the chief game commissioner.
Each deputy was placed under a bond of $100.00 or more
to ensure a faithful performance of duty. Fishery commis¬
sioners and deputy Crown lands agents were appointed
special game wardens, and a chief game commissioner was
appointed to supervise and instruct the wardens in the

The Fur-Trade of Canada

discharge of the regulations. All officers were given special
powers in seizing green hides and pelts of animals taken
illegally. Prosecutors were given one-half the fine except
in the case of wardens or deputy wardens, who received all
the fines. Rewards up to $100.00 could be offered from time
to time for apprehension of offenders. In 1898 market clerks
were made game wardens ex officio, and powers were given
to game wardens enabling them to search premises and
buildings. In 1899 wardens were authorized to seize and
confiscate to the Crown any green pelt found during the
close season. In 1905 wardens and deputy wardens were
required to pass an examination in wood-craft, natural
history, and other subjects regarded as essential in efficiency.
A chief ranger was also appointed to ensure better enforce¬
ment. In 1913 one chief ranger was appointed to supervise
the work of all wardens. More recently protection of fur¬
bearing animals has been combined with forestry work under
the direction of the provincial forester. The duties of forest
ranger and game warden have been combined, and the
number of ex officio game wardens greatly increased. The
general tendency has favoured the appointment of specially
qualified game wardens rather than the patronage system.
Nova Scotia appointed a chief game commissioner in 1896
to supervise and instruct district commissioners. Arrange¬
ments were made with the Game and Inland Fishery Pro¬
tection Society for the appointment of persons authorized
to sell licences and to act as agents in enforcement. The
Society was allotted 80 per cent, of the licence fees to enable
it to carry on the work of regulation. In 1898 power was
given to officers and agents of the Society, as well as to game
commissioners and constables, to search for pelts illegally
taken. In 1908 game inspectors were appointed, and
registered guides and forest rangers given the powers of
game wardens.

Quebec in 1899 appointed a game superintendent-general
and game inspector-general to enforce regulations. These
were given the powers of game wardens, and were ex officio

Conservation

justices of the peace. Game-keepers were appointed, and
all Crown land agents, timber agents, and wood-rangers,
were ex officio game wardens. Since the creation of the
Department of Game and Fisheries, Ontario has a deputy
minister, superintendent, inspectors (not exceeding three),
wardens, and overseers wfio have the authority of constables.
During the earlier period, and under the Act of 1868, fines
were shared equally between the informer and the munici¬
pality in which conviction of illegality was made. In 1877
all the fine was paid to the prosecutor. In 1897 a Board of
Fish and Game Commissioners was appointed as a step
towards more efficient regulation. In 1900 this Board
appointed deputy wardens with the power of search warrant.
Sheriffs, provincial police, wood rangers, Crown lands and
timber agents, were appointed deputy wardens. In 1907
the Board was abolished and the Game and Fisheries Branch
of the Mines Department established. This branch was
placed under the direction of a superintendent and three
inspectors to oversee the work of the game wardens.

In the prairie provinces game laws are administered under
the Departments of Agriculture, and the regulations are
enforced by provincial, local, and special game guardians.
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police are ex officio game
wardens. More recently each province has undertaken the
task of organizing its own police. Manitoba in 1890 appointed
game guardians, and empowered policemen, constables, and
game guardians to search for furs procured illegally. Saskat¬
chewan in 1905 provided for the appointment of a chief
game guardian and district game guardians through the
minister of Agriculture. The Royal North West Mounted
Police were made ex officio game guardians. Guardians were
given power to search during the close season and to con¬
fiscate furs taken illegally. Alberta adopted similar regula¬
tions in 1906. Proceeds of furs confiscated (up to $25.00)
were given to the game guardian. The chief game com¬
missioner has become an important official in both provinces.
British Columbia has a provincial game warden who appoints

The Fur-Trade of Canada

special game wardens for limited periods. Regular wardens
are occupied primarily in protecting game. . In 1918 a
provincial game conservation board was appointed to ad-
minister game regulations. The chief of provincial police

was made chief game warden.

In the Northwest Territories legislation is administered
by the minister of the Interior and the commissioner of
Dominion Parks. The Yukon game ordinance is an exception,
and is administered under the jurisdiction of the commissioner
of the Yukon. Regulations are enforced by the Royal
Canadian Mounted Police, who are ex officio game wardens.
In the Yukon Territories other' game wardens are also
appointed. Since 1915 regulations in the Northwest Terri¬
tories have been worked out by the Northwest Territories
and Yukon Branch of the Department of the Interior. The
Royal Canadian Mounted Police is the body of greatest
importance in the enforcement of regulations.

It is impossible in a short sketch of this character to
indicate fully the various changes in regulation which have
taken place since Confederation. It has been possible only
1 to outline the general trend of regulations.1 Important
indirect legislation in the interests of increased fur production
has not been considered, although all game laws protecting
wild life are in some sense related to the problem of fur
; production. Protection of forests against fires is important
to the production of furs. In general these laws have followed
the tendencies already described. Close seasons are most
important methods of protection. The establishment of
reserves and parks in which trapping and hunting are for¬
bidden is a significant measure in the conservation of wild
life. Quebec has followed a policy of leasing Crown lands as

Tor existing regulations it is necessary to keep in touch with the authorities
concerned. A list of these authorities and their addresses in the various provinces
and states may be found in R. G. Hodgson, Raising Beaver for Profit (Oshawa,
1924), pp. 22-6. A summary of the laws of states and provinces for 1919 may
be found in A. Laut, The Fur Trade of America (New York, 1921), pp. 156-186.
Unfortunately all summaries rapidly become out of date. Petersen's Fur-
Traders’ Lexicon, pp. 65-78, gives a similar digest.

Conservation

reserves to individuals and fish and game clubs. The lessees
are required to maintain guardians for the enforcement of
regulations as an essential part of the agreement. Nearly
five hundred leases involving an area of about ten thousand
square miles have been issued in this manner. Various
provinces have followed a policy of granting bounties on
more destructive animals. New Brunswick in 1898 paid a
bounty of $5.00 for every wolf, and 50c for every wild cat
or lynx. These bounties were increased in 1899. Other
provinces have paid varying bounties on destructive animals
at various times — the practice having developed at an early
period.

The policy of the Dominion government as contrasted
with the provinces has been shown in the Northwest Terri¬
tories. Reserves and parks have been set apart in various
parts of Canada which have served as breeding grounds for
animal life. The Wild Life Advisory Board is a recent
organization, including among its members representatives
from various departments of the Dominion government
interested in the protection of wild life. The organization has
been instrumental in fostering legislation directed to that
end. Large numbers of unofficial organizations, naturalists’
clubs, fish and game associations, and the like, contribute
in a very direct way to the enforcement of legislation.

The effectiveness of these regulations cannot be directly
estimated. It is generally admitted and is regarded as . #

inevitable that the existence of separate governments with y ^

different regulations and the proximity of a large consumer
of furs to the south render enforcement difficult. Long
boundary lines between the provinces and between Canada
and the United States are factors militating against effective
regulation. Trapping is carried on over wide areas, and the
trapper has no communication with the outside world during
a large part of the year. Large numbers of trappers are ^ —
Indians and half-breeds, who are not thoroughly cognizant
of regulations. Changes in regulations lead to confusion and
are difficult to enforce. Indians are. commonly under the

g2 The Fur-Trade of Canada

separate jurisdiction of the Indian Department of the
Dominion government, and are brought under the regulations
of separate government with considerable difficulty. An
efficient personnel for the administration of unusually difficult
regulations is the result of a long period of continuous teach¬
ing. The expense involved has in many cases made this

state of efficiency impossible. .

Certain provinces have found definite problems depending
largely on peculiarities of geographic background,, economic
development, and the character of the population. The
small area of Prince Edward Island and the scarcity of fur¬
bearing animals has been responsible for considerable laxity
in administration. New Brunswick, during the earlier period,
found difficulty in appointing efficient game wardens. The
practice of granting fines to the officers discovering violations
produced a state of mutual distrust rather than the co¬
operation essential to regulation. The minuteness of the
regulations to which traders and trappers were expected to
conform produced, in some instances, effects opposite to
those intended. Illegal trapping and smuggling of furs were
by no means completely checked. Nova Scotia, in spite of
stringent regulations, has also found it impossible to check
smuggling and illegal trapping. The payment of royalties
of taxes on furs is usually shifted to the trapper, and operates
as a direct incentive to smuggle furs to areas in which no
royalties are charged as to the United States and Quebec.
Nova Scotia has suffered also from frequent trifling changes
of the seasons which led to confusion. Returns to the
authorities are always subject to falsification. Similar
tendencies have been noted in Ontario and Quebec. The
latter province has found it difficult to control shipments
of furs to such neighbouring territories as Ontario and New
Brunswick and New York State. Furs are sent beyond the
interprovincial boundary, and reshipped to large fur houses
at Montreal and Quebec. In most cases it is impossible for
the Quebec government to verify the point of origin of the
furs. Lack of uniformity between the regulations and laws

Conservation

of neighbouring provinces is a serious handicap to enforce¬
ment. In Ontario various complaints have been in evidence.
High licence fees for fqreigners have been regarded as a
protective measure keeping out foreign competition, and
enabling Ontario buyers to gain a monopoly of the trade.
It has been claimed that regulations prohibiting the trapping
of beaver until December 15 are impossible to enforce.
Trappers1 going into the bush in October and November
cannot be controlled. Lack of uniformity with the laws of
Quebec is a handicap to Ontario as well as Quebec.

The prairie provinces and British Columbia suffer even
more seriously from "lack of uniformity of laws. e Furs may
be sent by the rivers' from one province to another without
fear of detection. Large numbers of trappers are Indians
and half-breeds. The Staff of gnardians is generally regarded,
as inadequate in numbers for enforcement. High licence
fees have proved a stimulus to smuggling. Provinces with
lower fees and royalties benefit through an increase in trade.
The Northwest Territories have developed recent problems
with the policy of restricting trapping and trading through
high licence fees and the creation of reserves. Complaints
are made by residents of the Northwest Territories that
their children, by attending school in Alberta, have lost the
rights of residents. It is claimed that the larger companies
are given special privileges as against individual traders.
Charge and counter charge are made to the effect that
returns forwarded to the government are incomplete. Re¬
serves are held responsible for increased competition among
trappers and for greater destruction of fur-bearing animals.
Large areas cannot possibly be adequately patrolled to
prevent poaching. Trappers tend to concentrate near the
reserves, and competition is increased. Trappers forced out
of the Territories by high licence fees trap in Alberta, and
deplete the fur resources of that province. Again lack of
uniform regulations during a period of high prices, such as
during the war, was held responsible for the development of a

1 Mail and Empire, Toronto, December 15, 1924.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

lucrative smuggling business. Altogether conditions in the
Northwest Territories cannot be regarded as satisfactory
from the standpoint of regulation.

In spite of numerous difficulties in the enforcement of
regulations, evidences of a drift toward improvement are in
sight. Neighbouring provinces of Quebec co-operate in law
enforcement by returning furs which are sent from Quebec
without a stamp. The state of New York also co-operates in
a similar way. In Alberta a rule was laid down in 1924
providing that close seasons could be imposed by order-in-
f council on agreement with the government of any province.
Indications are becoming more 'evident that co-operation
between various provinces in uniform regulations and in
enforcement will become the rule. Conferences are becoming
the rule between officials of various governments.

The situation in the United States may serve as an
illustration of general tendencies. The Biological Survey of
the United States is a federal organization with agents and
wardens in every state to direct the enactment and enforce¬
ment of legislation. The game departments of each state
co-operate with the Biological Survey, and legislation is
enacted in the interests of the conservation of fur resources.
A Committee on Interstate Commerce in Game enforces
federal laws dealing with trade. Restrictive legislation has
been carried much farther in the United States than in
Canada, especially in the full protection of animals in various
states, and the length of the close seasons. The Lacey Act
provides for penalties of violations of the laws of individual
states, as shown in shipments between states of furs procured
illegally. The Biological Survey Board checks the shipments
and receipts of furs to the important fur houses of the country,
and provides for prosecution of illegal shipments. The
tendency has been toward closer central control and more
effective regulation.

Undoubtedly regulation is the crucial aspect of fur pro¬
duction. Fur prices have increased rapidly. In new northern
countries such as Canada settlement has spread, trapping

Conservation

methods have become more effective, and the necessity for
improved means of regulation and enforcement has increased. J/
The more valuable fur-bearing animals found in the north '
temperate climates have been found to an increasing extent
in great danger. The problem of conserving and increasing
the supply of these furs is the problem of regulation. There
is no prospect of an increase of furs through the discovery
of new areas, of new tribes of Indians, or of new species of
fur- bearing animals. The consistent spread of settlement,
and the opening up of new areas to agriculture, lumbering,
and mining, constantly threaten existing supplies.

It would be utopian to attempt a sketch of the possibilities
of regulation. Canada is in a singularly favourable position
with vast areas open to the prosecution of the trade, with
rising prices for fine furs of the north temperate areas, and
with a constantly expanding market in close proximity. If a
central authority with effective regulation machinery could
be assumed, if adequate statistics could be gathered and
investigations carried out as to the most effective way of
increasing the number of fur-bearing animals, there can be
no doubt but that the wealth of Canada in furs would be
increased remarkably. The destruction of the organization
which had been built up through centuries of experience in
the fur-trade, in the abolition of the Hudson’s Bay Company
monopoly, has not been repaired. It was possible for a large
organization to conserve its fur resources not only with refer¬
ence to the fur-bearing animals, but also with reference to
the highest possible returns. It has not been possible with'
the relatively slow growth of regulation in separate provinces, UJ
with regulations of one province offsetting and nullifying the /
regulations of other provinces, with protective seasons ir>
one aiea increasing the price and the possibilities of destruc- j
tion in ot,her areas, to prevent the steady decline in many /
important fur- bearing animals. The prospects of decline in
the not distant future of other animals are relatively bright.

It is a platitude to say that the fur resources of Canada
are extremely valuable. They may be-increased in quantity

The Fur-Trade of Canada

and in value through the promotion of well-directed, uniform,
and constructive efforts. Canada is destined to become in
the modern industrial economy increasingly a specialized
area in the production of fur, by virtue of its geographic and
climatic background, provided always that requisite measures
are taken to ensure growth in this direction.

§2. Fur-Farming

The rise in the prices of furs, and especially of finer furs,
which becomes conspicuous in tlie middle nineties and in the
present century, has been responsible for the development of
regulations designed to protect important fur-bearing animals.
It has been no less responsible for the spectacular rise of
artificial methods of production as shown in fur-farming.1
Indeed, the distinction between fur-farming and regulation
is in many cases not clear. In 1846 the Hudson’s Bay Com¬
pany was successful in establishing a colony2 of beaver on
Charlton Island. On the island of Anticosti, which is owned
by M. Henri Menier, control is exercised over the number
of animals taken from year to year. Companies interested
in muskrats have leased large tracts of swamp and marsh
land, adopted measures to prevent poaching, and taken a
yearly harvest. The United States government, under a
convention with Great Britain, Russia, and Japan, has
assumed control of the fur seals on the Pribilof Islands.
Blue fox ranches are established in connection with the seal
rookery, and also on various uninhabited islands in the

JMr. R. W. Keast, in his study on “Fur-farming”, has concentrated his
attention on various details and practices involved in raising specific animals.
These practices are unfortunately changing constantly with the experimental
nature of the subject, and treatments of this character go out of date rapidly.
Mr. Keast has attempted, however, to bring the discussion down to the present
day. Multigraphed copies of his study may be had on application to the Ex¬
tension Department. University of Toronto. See also J. A. Allen and W. C. S.
McLure, Theory and Practice of Fox Ranching (Charlottetown, 1927).

2See an interesting proposal for the establishment of colonies of beaver in
the Hudson Bay Territory, dated April 26, 1813, in Can. Arch., Selkirk papers,
Vol. II, p. 605.

Fur-Farming

Behring Sea. In each of these cases it would be extremely
difficult to state whether fur-farming or regulation was under
discussion. For the purposes in hand a rigid definition is
unnecessary. Regulation becomes effective in geographically
restricted areas which are difficult of approach and easily
guarded, as in the cases noted. Under these conditions
production can be controlled to some extent through a
supervised destruction of a limited number of animals and
through supervised feeding. But fur-farming as ordinarily
regarded involves more adequate control and a greater
expenditure of capital.

Fur-farming has succeeded most conspicuously with
animals which are extremely rare, and which have a high
value because of the quality of the fur and the impossibility
of imitation. Large numbers of animals during the past
half-century have been regarded with increasing attention
as fur-farming prospects because of increasing prices, diffi¬
culties of regulation, and increasing scarcity. The chinchilla w jj
is an example in South America; but of especial importance 0
from the Canadian point of view has been the silver fox. .

It is proposed to review briefly the developments of the silver ^
fox industry to illustrate the general problems involved.

The value of the silver fox cannot be ascribed to an
increasing scarcity. The supply* 1 of silver fox furs prior to yv rs/
the development of fur-farming varied closely with the supply f > ' ;

of red fox. Its increasing value was the result primarily of ^
the increase in demand. Significant experiments began in - •

Prince Edward Island in the latter part of the eighties of
last century in keeping the red fox in captivity. Later, on
the basis of these experiments, attempts were made to raise
silver foxes in captivity. Mr. Dalton (now Sir Cnailes
Dalton) began to purchase live black foxes from trappers

JChief Trader Bernard R. Ross estimated that the proportion of silver and
black foxes caught in the Mackenzie district during the period 1848-1860 was
about two-fifteenths; red fox, six-fifteenths; and cross fox seven-fifteent s.
An estimate for White Whale River on the east coast of the Hudson Bay gives

1 cross fox for 10 red fox, 1 silver fox for 30 red-fox, and 1 wolf for 100 red fox.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

and others who had been unsuccessful in raising the young.
Mr. Haywood had earlier attempted to raise silver foxes, but
in all cases the mother had destroyed the pups. Further
difficulties developed in getting the foxes to breed in captivity,
apparently the result of sex inhibition. In 1883 Mr. Dalton
purchased a pair of dark silver foxes which have been regarded
as the foundation of the Prince Edward Island industry.
Eventually Mr. Dalton and Mr. Oulton formed a partner¬
ship, and removed the foxes to Cherry Island, where they were
kept in pens of wire netting. In 1894 Mr. Oulton, who
directed the breeding end of the business, was successful in
raising to maturity a litter of silver foxes. Others began to
take a greater interest in Mr. Oulton’s success, and the
firm of “Tuplin and Gordon” purchased a pair of foxes from
him in 1890. Captain James Gordon has been credited with
I the invention of satisfactory types of nests. Mr. Oulton’s
1 work became prominent in designing forms for pens. Mr.
Silas Rayner contributed to the general development by
success in breeding silver foxes from cross foxes and segregat¬
ing the silver strain. With success along these lines, fox¬
farming1 became of greater importance. In 1900 one of the
silver fox pelts raised on the farms was sold for $1,800 at
the London fur sales. The result tvas a rapid increase in the
demand for silver foxes for breeding purposes from 1900 to
1905. After 1905 larger numbers of pelts were sold on the
market. The demand for foxes for breeding purposes
increased, but a general agreement between important owners
prevented the sale of live animals for breeding purposes to
outsiders until 1910. In the autumn of that year the mono¬
poly was broken and the sale of breeding stock began on a
large scale. Prices increased rapidly from $3,000 for breeding
pairs in 1910 to $20,000 in 1913. As a result large numbers

1See J. W. Jones, Fur Farming m Canada (Ottawa, 1914), pp. 15-19, for
interesting details on early development. The semi-centennial edition of the
Summerside Journal contains many interesting facts not recorded by Mr. Jones.
In some instances the two accounts differ materially. See Canadian National
Record for Foxes, Vol. I (Ottawa, 1922), pp. xxv-xxxiii.

Fur- Farming

of corporations' were formed to finance the purchases, and
a period of intense speculation followed. The first public
corporation was formed in the United States in 1911. With
the rapid decline in fur prices following the war and the
disruption of the European market, large numbers of these
newly-formed corporations disappeared. The development
of the American market and the rise in prices of the post-war
period have placed the industry on a sounder basis.

The industry developed concurrently in other provinces
of Canada and in the United States. Contributions1 2 have
been made by many pioneers and various organizations, and
publications have come into existence to foster the industry.
In 1913 the Silver Fox Breeders’ Association of Prince Edward
Island was organized to conserve the interest of breeders and
to protect purchasers against fraud by the establishment of
a system of registration. In 1920 the Department of Agri¬
culture of the Dominion granted a charter to the Canadian
Silver Fox Breeders’ Association3. Pedigrees of ranch-bred
silver foxes are issued after inspection by an officer of the
Live Stock department. Records are kept at the head office

1For a list of fur-farming companies with their places of business and capita' -
ization, and of fur-farmers in various provinces, existing in 1914, see J. W. Jones’
op. cit., App. XI, pp. 222-251. The annual fur-farm reports include the names
of fur-farmers and their addresses arranged alphabetically by counties.

2Mr. Jones attributes the early difficulties of fox-farming to the following
facts: (1) No good fencing material, such as woven wire, was available. (2)
Warm, dry quarters for young litters were not provided, the necessity of having
a small well-insulated nest which would be sufficiently warmed by the mother’s
body not being realized. (3) The monogamous nature of foxes was not recognized,
and being quartered in one pen in large numbers the young were killed. (4) The
price of fur was not high enough to induce breeders to risk large amounts of
capital in experiment, and those who had the aptitude for the business usually
possessed little capital. See J. W. Jones, op. cit., p. 18.

3See Canadian National Record for Foxes (Ottawa, 1922) for a copy of the
constitution and amendments; also for a list of pedigreed animals. The Associa¬
tion has not been regarded with favour by all fox-breeders. Farmers in the
Yukon Territory and elsewhere have found it impossible to conform to the
regulations. Men engaged in building up a ranch from wild stock are not in a
position to subscribe to the rules of the Association without considerable financial
loss. Recent legislation in Ontario is evidence of similar dissatisfaction.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

of the Association in Summerside. Registered foxes are
marked by tattoos of letters and numbers on the ears, and
the purchaser is protected against fraud. Fox researcn
stations have been established in Prince Edward Island and
Quebec, and research work is being carried out on dietary
and pathological problems. During the 1926 session of the
legislature, the province of Ontario voted supplies for the
establishment of an experimental farm for the raising of
fur animals. Legislation has been enacted in ah provinces1
providing for reports from owners of live fur-bearing animals,
and also for the regulation of shipments and other details,
including permits for capture of live animals.

The present state of silver fox-farming in Canada is
shown in the Annual Report on Fur Farms for 1924. The
total number of fur farms in operation in Canada in 1924
was 1,551, of which 1,466 were fox farms, an increase in the
latter of 287 over 1923. Of this total Prince Edward Island
had 458, an increase of 10; Ontario had 291, an increase of
SO; Quebec had 277, an increase of 29; Nova Scotia had 152,
an increase of 29; and New Brunswick had 106, an increase
of 17. With respect to total value of property, Prince
Edward Island possessed 36 per cent., Ontario 16 per cent.,
Quebec 12 per cent., New Brunswick 9 per cent., and Nova
Scotia 6 per cent. The difficulties involved in statistics
regarding the value of property forbid an extended analysis.
Prince Edward Island and Ontario are the more important
provinces. A comparison between these provinces should
give interesting results. The total number of silver foxes
born in 1924 was 23,476, an increase of 4,176. The number
of deaths of the young in 1924 was 2,905, an increase of 264,

XA copy of “An Act to impose a tax upon foxes held in captivity in this
province. 3 Geo. V. c. 5, 1913, P.E.I.’’, may be found in J. W. Jones, op. cit.,
App. VII. Excerpts from legislation in other provinces are also included, pp. 164-
181. Present regulations may be obtained from the authorities of various
provinces.. The statistical information obtained from reports is included in the
Annual Report on the Fur Farms of Canada, issued by the Dominion Bureau of
Statistics.

Fur- Farming

of adults, 986, an increase of 107. The number of animals
killed for pelts (young) was 3,180, a decrease of 1,408, adults,
3,324, a decrease of 401. In 1924 the number of deaths of
the young was practically as great as the number of young
killed for pelts. The number of deaths of adults was about
one-third the number killed for pelts. The high death rate,
especially of the young, is significant of the difficulties of
the industry. In Prince Edward Island the percentage of
deaths of the young to the number of animals born was 8.7
per cent., in New Brunswick, 10.2 per cent., in Quebec,
16.5 per cent., in Nova Scotia, 18.9 per cent., in Ontario,
25.1 per cent. The contrast between Ontario and Prince
Edward Island is striking.

Undoubtedly the experience which fur-farmers of Prince
Edward Island have had in raising foxes has been an im¬
portant factor in determining the relatively low death rate.
On the other hand, the tendencies shown in the fox farms of
Prince Edward Island should have considerable significance.
On the whole, the farms of this province were larger than the
farms of Ontario. The average value of the land and build¬
ings for 1924 on a fox farm in Prince Edward Island was
$1,728, and in Ontario, $1,362. The average number o
pens per farm in Prince Edward Island was 18, and in
Ontario, 10.5. The number of foxes on each farm in Prince
Edward Island is compared with the number in Ontario in
the following table.

u>r?

Va-

Percentage of farms having
at the end of the year 1914

P.E.I.

Ontario

Less than 5 foxes .

. . . 18.3

30.2

5 to 9 foxes .

. . . 20.9

26 1

10 to 19 foxes .

, . . . 20.7

22.6

20 to 29 foxes .

, . .. 11.5

10.9

30 or over . .

, ... 28.3

9.9

A Pi U*

* O 'u
0

piT'

The largest percentage (30.2) of farms in Ontario have less
than 5 foxes, whereas the largest percentage of farms in

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Prince Edward Island (28.3) have 30 foxes or over, in
Ontario the general rule is small farms, whereas in Prince
Edward Island the tendency is toward large farms. To an
appreciable extent this situation is reflected in the forms of
organization for ownership.

Percentage owning farms

P.E.I.

Ontario

Individuals .

69.4

75.2

Partnerships .

14.8

19.9

Companies .

15.7

4.7

Boarding foxes .

44.5

26.1

The smaller farms of Ontario are financed by individuals and
partnerships, whereas the larger farms of Prince Edward
Island are financed by corporations. The larger percentage
of corporations in Prince Edward Island is partly the result
of the period of expansion from 1910 to 1914, in which
Ontario shared to a less extent; but the amount of capital
required to finance large farms is also important in determin¬
ing the form of organization.

The evidence which has been considered supports the
'/j suggestion that experience and capital are important con¬
siderations. Xhu low death rate of young foxes in Prince
Edward Island would appear to be the result of these factors.
The, technique of fur-farming is undoubtedly of the greatest
importance. The choice of location and the construction of
the ranches require a high grade of experience. In 1923 it
was estimated that $20,000 to $25,000 was required to
purchase ten pairs of young foxes, build and equip a ranch,
and operate it for one year. The choice and selection of
stock is of the utmost importance. The problems connected
with the breeding of foxes, feeding and raising of the young,
sanitation and treatment of disease, demand long apprentice¬
ship and experience on the part of the managers. The ad¬
vantages of a large amount of capital are shown in the
ability to hire competent managers, to purchase the best

Fur- Farming

stock, to equip thoroughly a ranch, to hire an attending
veterinary surgeon, and to conduct an effective advertising
campaign for the sale of the foxes. On the other hand, a
large ranch has certain disadvantages, such as the possible
destructiveness of contagious diseases and the fact that
managers are not apt to have the same direct interest in the
ranch as the individual owners. The industry has been
dependent to a very large degree on'fhe individual ranchers,
who have grown up with the business and acquired a thorough
grasp of its problems.

The importance of technique in the industry has given
rise to new forms of organization which merit further atten¬
tion. The practice has grown up of purchasing foxes from
ranchers, of renting a pen from the rancher, and paying him
an annual sum of $100 to $175 for care and feed until Decem¬
ber, when the fur is prime and the pelts may be sold. The
rapid growth of the practice appears to have been partly
a result of the discrepancy between the prices of live animals
and the prices of pelts. In 1924 Prince Edward Island sold
992 adult foxes for $208,590, an average of $209.80 and
4,614 young foxes for $936,340, an average of $202.90. ^ In
the same year 2,957 pelts of silver fox were sold for $317,775,
an average of $107.40. Consequently fox ranchers have been
interested in selling live animals rather than pelts. This
tendency was especially evident in 1924. 1 As a result
extensive advertising has been carried on encouraging pur¬
chases of live ‘animals. Similarly an important Canadian
export business has grown up for live animals, showing an
increase from 1,187 black and silver foxes in 1923 to 5,802 in
1925. _ _ _

1 Report on the Fur Farms of Canada, 1924, p. 7. On the other hand, larger
fur-farms are beginning to advertise the silver fox from the pelt standpoint.
Undoubtedly an effective co-operation between silver fox farmers will be necessary
to secure tangible results. The great bulk of pelts in Prince Edward Island have
been sold by consignment to auction sales. Fur companies bought a small
proportion v through agents or correspondence {ibid., p. 23). In the Yukon
Territory farmers find it advantageous to sell direct to the consumer and have a
ready market in the tourist trade.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

It is impossible to predict the future of the trade, but
certain tendencies are in evidence. In spite of the heavy
losses occasioned by the purchase of live animals by larger
numbers of inexperienced farmers, which may be increased
-by advertising, and the loss through killing for pelts and
I consistent advertising, eventually the stock of live animals
\ will increase and prices will decline. The work of scientific
investigators, the contributions of numerous fur-farming
magazines, and the wider experience of large numbers of
farmers will to some extent check the losses through death
of the young. Larger numbers of pelts will undoubtedly
come on the market, and prices will decline. On the other
hand, silver fox fur cannot be imitated, and so long as prices
are high the demand should continue, especially if judicious
"advertising is brought into play. These are some of the
factors which enter into the situation. The effects of changes
\ in fashion and of improvement, or deterioration, of stock
cannot be predicted. It would appear probable that Prince
Edward Island,1 by virtue of the stock which it has pro¬
duced, the experience of its farmers, and the lead which it
has in the industry, will be in a very favourable position as
a producer of live animals. The problems of the industry
could be met more effectively by an enlargement of the
Report on Fur Farms to include statistics on information
which cannot otherwise be made available. Although the
Bureau of Statistics might find difficulty in obtaining funds
to support extended work, it should be worthy of the govern¬
ment’s support.

The problems of the fox-farming industry illustrate to an
appreciable degree the problems of farming other animals.

lThe Silver Fox Exhibition at the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair in Toronto,
inaugurated in 1922 under the auspices of the Canadian Silver Fox Breeders
Association, awards the great majority of prizes to Prince Edward Island stock.
An interesting paper on the advantages of Prince Edward Island, especially in
the supply of fish for food will be found in F. A. Stelgenbauer, Geographic
Aspects of the Prince Edward Island Fur Industry. (Economic Geogranhv Ian
1927, pp. 110-125). "

The Problem of Supply

The experience gained in this connection has not yet been
adequate to warrant an analysis. Various other furs are
affected by changes in fashion in a more pronounced degree
than silver fox, and the problem would be more complicated
as a result. Undoubtedly the pioneers in the farming of
other animals, in acquiring the technique of raising various
species, and in developing the highest grades of furs, are
making significant contributions for later progress.

The fur-farming industry of Canada is rooted deeply in
recent economic developments. Theorising price of furs has
been responsible for the progress of fur-farming, as it has.
been responsible for the growth in regulations. But the
development of fur-farming raises numerous problems of
which the solution can be reached only by the persistent
and steady work of pioneers. Each species has its own
characteristics and its own problems which must be solved.
It is hardly necessary to repeat that Canada, because of her
climatic background, is in a strategic position for the develop¬
ment of fur-farming, and that the rise in fur prices has given
it a secure place. The start which has been made in the
farming of foxes has been a stimulus to experiment1 in other
species. But, as yet, the information is too inadequate to
warrant predictions. We should expect greater success in
fur-farming in those animals which are increasing in scarcity
in wild life, which have pelts of high value through scarcity
and quality, which increase slowly, which have ineffective
regulations, which can be bred in captivity to produce the
highest grade of pelts, and which are not affected materially
through changes in fashion.

§3. The Problem of Supply

Important results of the rise in prices have been shown
in attempts to increase the supply of furs through conserva-

_ v _ _ _ _ — - — — - —

‘Notices of these experiments may be found in large numbers of journals
and recent publications. See J. W. Jones, op. cit., pp. 20-112. Mink farming has
received a great deal of attention as for instance in the Yukon Territory.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

\
s>.

tion and through fur-farming. There_rern ain.s-thajtaskjof
'studying more adequately the problems of the_supplx_o^_
urs in general. ~ - — , — _ : -

Possibly no better instance exists of a fur which illustrates
the long run cause of fluctuations in supply than thejpea^gr
(see Graph 17). The supply of beaver dependecTTn the
earlier history of the trade on the ability of the Indians as
hunters, on the improvement of hunting methods following
the importation of European devices, on the greater attention
of the Indians to that occupation, on the number of Indians,
and on ways and means of encouraging them to search over
wider areas for new supplies. * Fluctuations were unusually
rapid as a result of wars among the Indians, competition
with the Dutch and the English, and wars between France
and other powers. Inability to control the supply, and the
regulations designed to that end, had results difficult to
determine. Finally, the supply of beaver showed the effects
of competition, of monopoly control, and of the substitution
of nutria and silk in the manufacture of beaver hats. The
effect of regulations in conserving the supply of beaver are
shown in the taking of from 165,000 to 230,000 beaver pelts
in Canada in the years 1920-1924.

Undoubtedly a long run factor leading to a decline in the
supply of fine furs is increase in settlement. With settlement
the food of fur-bearing animals disappears in the destruction
of forms of plant and animal life on which fur- bearing
animals subsist. The disappearance of timber and shelter
has a further devastating effect. Especially in the northern
land areas of Asia and North America, the development of
agriculture, mining, and lumbering has been an important
factor in determining the supply of fine furs.

The importance of the change in producing areas of the
wor ls *urs may be gained from various estimates presented
at different periods (see Table B). Fortunately, such esti¬
mates exist for a period similar to that discussed under
prices 1863, 1907-9, 1913, and 1923-4. These estimates
must necessarily be considered with the greatest caution,

Asia and
Russia

N. Amer.
18631

Asia

1907-92

Asia

19133

Asia

1923-44

1 Sable .

109,000

95,000

90,000

6,000

2 Pine marten .

30,000

3 Stone marten .

30,000

4 Japanese marten .

10,000

5 Kolinsky .

80,000

200,000

300,000

6 Ermine .

350,000

700,000

750,000

1,000,000

7 Chinese and Japanese weasel

700,000

500,000

8 White weasel .

5,000

—

9 Perwitzky .

3,000

50,000

10 Fitch .

—

150,000

200,000

11 Siberian polecat .

600,000

12 Skunk .

13 Silver fox . • .

500

1,000

500

14 Cross fox .

5,600

3,000

10,000

5,000

15 Red fox .

45,000

150,000

200,000

601X000

I 14
_ _ 1

16 White fox .

54,000

20,000

25,000

.. 4J0LDSa!

17 Blue fox .

- : .

18 Grey fox.

19 Kitt fox.

• ^

20 Kitt (Brazil fox). . ,

■ yRM|||j

Pampas and_

BFi

1 he Problem of Supply

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The Fur-Trade of Canada

(a) Report of Committee on Hudson’s Bay Company, 1749, App. X, pp. 252-3.

( b ) 1822-1869. During the first part of the period attempts were made by monopoly control to restrict production.
After 1869 with competition, efforts to “nurse” the supply were futile.

The Problem of Supply

but they represent a rough approximation of the fur supply
during the period. One of the most striking features shown
in a comparison of furs throughout the period from 1863 to
1924 was an increase in the number of countries from which
furs have been taken and an increase in the supply of furs
from these areas. Necessarily, this increase involves the use
of furs of a poorer quality from southern and more tropical
land areas. The distribution of land areas over the earth’s

Graph by R. S. Cook. Graph 17 Notes by H. A. Innis.

(1) These graphs are based on statistics following an addition
of beaver skins sent through the Hudson’s Bay Co. and through
other companies as shown in Poland. The effects of competition
and monopoly control are shown very clearly.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

surface is significant to the development of the fur supply.
The large land areas in the northern hemisphere, and the
triangular shape of the continents in which the base of the
triangle lies to the north and the apex to the south, limits the
production of fine furs in colder seasonal localities to the
northern areas of North America and Eurasia. Of the
southern continents, Africa and South America, the base of
the triangle and the great portion of the land areas are in
tropical regions. The apex of the triangle and the smaller
land areas extending to the southern temperate zones are
devoted largely to agriculture, mining, and colonization
activities. The southern hemisphere, with small land areas
{ located in climates suitable to the production of fine furs,
is necessarily limited in its possibilities of supply. Northern
North America and northern Eurasia, through the size of
the land areas and climatic characteristics, are logically the
centres of production of fine furs.

The supply1 of furs from southern areas has been partly
dependent on colonization activities, but more largely on
the increasing demand for furs. In \ South America furs
produced in higher altitudes, in more southerly region^, and
from “amphibious” animals, were most valuable and most
rapidly exploited. Chinchilla was obtained in large quantities
in 1863 (100,000). ""The numbers produced have fallen off
\ materially and rapidly. After 1916 regulations and encour-
j agement of the farming of chinchilla have to some
\ extent affected the supply. A rapid rise in price and the
declining supply of chinchilla led to an increase in the export
of Bolivia, Plata, or bastard chinchilla, and the coarser furs
of chinchillones (200,000 in 1923-4). Nutria (coypu) became
important as a substitute for beaverTifthe manufacture of
beaver hats. As in the case of chinchilla, production declined

JMr. R. H. Littlejohn, in an essay on the fur-trade of other countries, has
collected considerable statistical material on the production of various furs in
different countries. See H. Poland, Fur-bearing Animals in Nature and Com¬
merce (London, 1892), which is an important source book of information on
individual animals.

The Problem of Supply

rapidly after 1863 (3,000,000). In 1923-4 the estimated pro¬
duction was given as 800,000. With the disappearance of
more valuable furs, the cheaper “furs have become more
important. Skunks havo increased from 5,000 in 1907-9 to
100,000 in 1923-4, opossum from 5,000 to 50,000. In the
latter year 500,000 hares, were produced. Lamb-skins in¬
creased from 500,000 in 1907-9 to 1,000,000 in 1923-4.
Guanaco in 1923-4 was estimated at 30,000; vicuna in 1913
at 15,000; domestic cat in 1923-4 at 50,000; tigers and wild
cats at 100,000. Small numbers of otter, fisher, seal skins,
jaguar (Brazil, Pampas, and Patagonia) fox do not affect the
conclusion thats South America has become increasingly a
source of supply of cheaper furs. With the more valuable
furs decline has been characteristic and has been followed
by rising prices, fur-farming, and regulation.

Australia and the islands of the South Seas are in a
position similar to South America. More valuable furs have
been rapidly depleted, restrictions have been necessary and
the cheaper furs have greatly increased in importance.
Kangaroo decreased from 50,000 in 1907-9 to 10,000 in 1923-4.
Protection has been given in many districts of New South
Wales and Victoria. The wombat has declined from 250,000
in 1907-9 to 2,000 in 1923-4, and protection regulations have
been introduced. Opossum has decreased from 4,000,000 in
1907-9 to 1,500,000 in 1923-4, and protection has been granted
in Tasmania, Victoria, and New South Wales. On the other
hand, cheaper furs, as shown especially in rabbits, have
increased remarkably. The estimated supply of rabbits
increased from 20,000,000 in 1907-9 to 100,000,000 in 1923-4.
Ringtails increased from 50,000 to 600,000 in the same
period. Wallaby remained comparatively stationary, 800,000
in 1907-9, and 900,000 in 1923-4. Red fox increased from
60,000 to 400,000 in the same time. Domestic cats totalled
20,000 in the latter year. Smaller items, including badgers,
nutria, and native cats, strengthen the general tendency
toward an increasing supply of cheaper furs and increasing
regulations to conserve the supply of more valuable furs.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Africa, like Australia, becomes important in the estimates
of fur supply in 1907-9. Monkeys have increased from 10,000
in 1907-9 to 35,000 in 1923-4; jackals doubled from 10,000
to 20,000; leopards increased from 5,000 to 20,000. In
1923-4 Africa produced also 200,000 gazelles, 5,000 genet
cats, 2,000 tiger cats, 2,000 civet cats, and 10,000 Persian
lamb. The increasing demand for furs has affected the
continent of Africa especially since 1900.

The northern hemisphere, with large land areas located
in climates suitable to the production of finer furs, is the
most important base of supply. Value estimates (see Table
C) are extremely unreliable for furs, but it has been estimated
that in 1863 in a total value of $17^456,650 the southern
hemisphere produced furs valued at $1,245,000, or 7.1%.
In 1907-9, from a total of $70,400,000, the southern hemi¬
sphere produced $6,600,000, or 9.3%. In 1923-4, from a
total of $212,600,000, the southern hemisphere produced
$14,400,000, or 6.7%. In the northern hemisphere, North
America (excluding Greenland) occupies a prominent position.
In 1863, from a total estimate of $16,211,650, North America
produced $5,354,250, or 33.0%. In 1907-9, from a total of
$63,800,000 for the northern hemisphere, North America
supplied $20,000,000, or 31.3%, and in 1923-4, from a total
of $198,200,000, North America produced $75,000,000, or
37.8%.

In the more valuable furs of North America, general
tendencies, as shown in the Hudson’s Bay Company’s sales,
have been already indicated. Silver fox have increased from
1,500 in 1863 to 4,000 in 1907-9, and with activities of fur¬
farming to 20,000 in 1923-4. Cross fox increased from 4,300
to 15,000 and 20,000 in the same years; red fox from 60,000
to 200,000 to 400,000; white fox from 8,000 to 30,000 to
120,000 (largely a result of the opening of new areas in the
Arctic); grey fox from 25,000 to 50,000 to 80,000; blue fox
from 6,000 in 1907-9 to 30,000 in 1923-4 (partly a result of
fur-farming especially in Alaska) ; kit fox remained
stationary. Aside from the fact that these estimates are

The Problem of Supply

TABLE C: VALUE OF FURS

181

331

Country

Number of Furs

Value

Siberia and Russian America.

10,027,300

$4,652,500

Middle Europe

9,377,500

3,817,800

North America

5,169,600

5,354,250

European Russian, Sweden, Nor-

way, Iceland, Greenland

3,775,600

2,387,100

South America, South Asia, Afri-

ca, Australia, South Sea Islands

3,700,500

1,245,000

32,050,500

$17,456,650

1907-92

1923-45

Value

5 marks = $1.00

5 gold marks = $1.00

Asia

$22,000,000

$60,000,000

North America

20,000,000

75,000,000

South America

1,600,000

4,000,000

Australia

5,000,000

10,000,000

Europe and Russia

20,000,000

60,000,000

Oceana

1,800,000

2,400,000

Germany

2,000,000

Austria-Hungary

1,000,000

Africa

400,000

Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen,

European Arctic

800,000

1H. Lomer, op. cit., pp. 47-51.
SE. Brass, op. cit., pp. 431-3.
•Ibid., pp. 434-6.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

probably high, the increase in fox furs, especially of the finer
and more valuable furs, has been the result of more effective
trapping, marked increase through fur-farming, and the
opening of new areas. Otter has increased from 20,000 in
1863 to 30,000 in 1923-4. Mink increased from 200,000 to
300,000, marten from 130,000 to 400,000. Fisher declined
from 12,500 to 6,000. Beaver increased from 130,000 to
200,000 (partly a result of protective measures), lynx from
26,000 to 30,000, ermine (weasel) 400,000 in 1907-9 to
1,000,000 in 1923-4. Muskrat increased from 2,850,000 in
1863 to 8,000,000 in 1907-9, and to 20,000,000 in 1923-4;
skunks from 100,000 to 1,500,000 to 3,500,000 during the
same years; raccoons 600,000 in 1863 to 700,000 in 1923-4.
Wolf increased from 12,500 in 1863 to 48,000 in 1907-9,
and to 250,000 in 1923-4; bear from 15,000 in 1863 to 25,000
in 1923-4. Coarser and more southern furs increased rapidly
— opossum from 250,000 in 1863 to 1,000,000 in 1907-9, and
to 3,000,000 in 1923-4; marmot from 5,000 in 1863 to 25,000
in 1913; badger from 2,000 in 1863 to 20,000 in 1923-4;
civet cat (lesser skunk) from 100,000 in 1907-9 to 600,000 in
1923-4. Domestic cat increased from 80,000 in 1907-9 to
150,000 in 1923-4. Furs of minor importance include the
wolverine, which remained stationary at about 3,000. Moles
appear in the 1923-4 estimates at 500,000; musk-oxen
declined from 500 to 300; buffalo were estimated at 60,000
in 1863; fur seals have been protected, and the supply
limited. These statistics tend to support the conclusion that
prices in North America have increased. Large areas have
been made accessible since 1863, population has increased,
trapping has been carried on more effectively, regulations
have been passed fostering an increase in fur-bearing animals,
fur-farming has developed more valuable furs, and larger
numbers of cheaper furs have been placed on the market.
The existence of large areas in the northern regions, in¬
accessible and unsuited to agriculture, has been responsible
for the fortunate position of the North American continent
as a fur-producer in the period from 1863 to 1923-4>

The Problem of Supply

Eurasia is the most important fur-producing continent.
In the larger area, Asia and the great territories in northern
Russia and Siberia, are found the more valuable fur-bearing
animals. Russian sable has decreased very rapidly from
109,000 in 1863 to 95,000 in 1907-9 and to 6,000 in 1923-4.
Protection has been found essential to prevent extermination.
The sea otter has practically disappeared. The ermine
(Russian weasel or stoat) increased from 350,000 in 1863 to
1,000,000 in 1923-4. Kolinsky increased from 80,000 to
300,000 in the same period. Otter increased from 4,000 in
1863 to 40,000 in 1913; squirrel from 6,000,000 to 20,000,000;
red fox from 45,000 to 600,000; kit fox from 30,000 to
300,000. White fox declined from 54,000 to 40,000. Wolf
increased from 6,000 to 100,000. Other valuable furs from
Siberia and northern Russia include mink (20,000), pine
marten (30,000), stone marten (30,000), fitch (150-200,000),
Siberian polecat (600,000), silver fox (500), cross fox (5,000),
blue fox (3,000), grey fox (150,000), lynx (15,000), wolverine
(4,000), beaver (1,000), bear (10,000). The cheaper, coarser,
and more southern furs have increased rapidly. Marmot
increased from 40,000 in 1863 to 200,000 in 1923-4. White
hare and white rabbit increased from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000;
lambskin from 700,000 to 1,000,000; broadtail from 100,000
in 1913 to 200,000 in 1923-4; slink lamb from 100,000 in
1907-9 to 300,000 in 1923-4; kid from 800,000 in 1907-9
to 2,000,000 in 1923-4. Other cheaper and more southerly
and easterly furs include pony (50,000), Chinese goat
(500,000 to 3,000,000 from 1907-9 to 1923-4), Tibet lamb
(500,000), susliki (500,000), pahmi or Chinese badger
(60,000 to 300,000 from 1907-9 to 1923-4), Chinese and
Japanese weasel (500,000), perwitzky (5,000), Chinese and
Japanese sea-fox (260,000 to 400,000), jackal (10,000),
Chinese dog (200,000 to 2,000,000), domestic cat (100,000),
tiger cat (30,000), leopard (10,000), monkey (50,000), raccoon
dog (300,000). As in North America, fine furs have shown
a tendency to increase. The opening. of new territory, as in

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Siberia,1 has undoubtedly been largely responsible. As_in
North America, new areas have been settled, protection has
'Been essential for the more valuable fur- bearing animals,
and cheaper furs and skins have increased in production to
a" marked extent. In Europe, pine marten increased from
120,000 in 1863 to 150,000 in 1923-4; stone marten from
250,000 to 400,000; fitch from 380,000 to 400,000; red fox
from 140,000 to 800,000; otter from 12,000 to 40,000; moles
from 1,000,000 in 1907-9 to 10,000,000 in 1923-4. Other
valuable furs include mink (20,000), kolinsky (10,000),
squirrel (500,000), muskrat (400,000), white fox (10,000),
lynx (10,000), bear (2,000), wolf '(5,000), wolverine (1,000),
ermine (10,000). Cheaper furs increased rapidly. Hamster
increased from 200,000 in 1863 to 2,500,000 in 1923-4; hare
from 1,300,000 to 12,150,000; rabbit from 4,420,000 to
80,000,000; lambskin from 2,000,000 to 6,000,000. Other
furs included domestic cat (400,000), wild sheep (200,000),
badger (30,000), marmot (500,000). European fine furs
increased more steadily than in Asia. In a country with
relatively dense population animal life tends to reach an
adjustment with environment, and rapid changes are not
characteristic. On the other hand, the production of cheap
furs increased rapidly, as in other countries.

I The total world production of furs has changed materially
from 1863 to 1924. For all producing areas certain distinct
features are in evidence. For animals which have very
valuable furs, which are easily caught, and which become, as
a result, increasingly scarce and valuable because of their
expensiveness, regulations restricting the numbers caught
are essential. The sea otter, fur-seal, chinchilla, wombat,
and beaver may be mentioned as illustrations. In the case
of animals difficult to catch and unusually scarce and valuable,
attempts have been made to increase the supply through
artificial means, such as fur-farming. In all continents there

1F°r an extended discussion of the importance of the fur-trade to Siberian
economic development, see Jos. Klein, Der Sibirische Pelzhandel und seine Bedeu-
tungjiir die Eroberung Sibiriens (Bonn, 1906).

The Problem of Supply

exists abundant evidence of the increasing demand for furs
in the dependence on cheaper furs and the increasing attention
to the raising of animals producing substitutes for fur — •
Persian lambs, Chinese goats, Chinese dogs, ponies, rabbits,
and hares. The demand for fine furs has continued to absorb
larger numbers- a result of the opening of new areas, of
increase in population, and of more effective trapping
methods.

The analysis of fur production in the various continents
is based on estimates which indicate clearly certain trends,
but on which little reliance can be placed for an extended
study. For this purpose it has been proposed that a study
of fur production in CanadaT over an extended period might
yield more satisfactory results. Unfortunately, however,
difficulties are numerous. The great bulk of statistics on fur
production have been obtained from the sales of the Hudson’s
Bay Company, and from exports. For the post-war period
the Dominion Bureau of Statistics has issued separate reports
on fur production, which should become of very great value.
On the other hand, one cannot escape the conclusion that
these statistics are not complete. .The difficulty of collecting
statistics on fur production renders this situation inevitable.

Nevertheless, by making allowance for various defects, it
is possible that certain conclusions may be drawn. Statistics
of Hudson’s Bay Company’s sales have the"Tollowing diffi¬
culties. Sales in January and March are of furs caught the
preceding winter. No allowance can be made for the holding
over of furs from year to year to secure higher prices, although
it is understood that the Company follows the policy of
auctioning all its furs without reserve. In recent years
(since 1920) the policy of selling furs in Montreal and other
American points, and of entering the consignment business,
will necessitate even more careful scrutiny of sales statistics.
With increasing competition, Hudson’s Bay Company sales
represent less accurately the total production of Canada,
although its sales are still basic desiderata. J^tices" and
fashions tend to have an increasing effect on the numbers of

The Fur-Trade of Canada

furs sold, and on the activities of trappers. Prior to the
introduction of steamboats and railways, furs from more
distant departments reached London one or more years
later than those from departments directly accessible to
London. Transportation facilities were occasionally in¬
adequate, and a season’s furs were delayed a year. With
monopoly control prior to increased competition, the Com¬
pany was in a position to direct production, as has been
shown in the case of beaver and muskrat.

Nevertheless, graphs1 illustrating sales statistics from 1821
have pronounced tendencies. It has already been pointed
out that definite cycles are evident in most furs. The causes
of these cyclical fluctuations are not definitely known.
generally conceded that rabbits are an important factor2 in
determining the supply of furs from animals dependent on
it for food. Seton in 1903-4 reported an abundance of rabbits
in the Mackenzie River district. The Hudson’s Bay Com¬
pany’s returns for lynx reached a peak in 1906. Lynx are
caught, not when there is an abundance of rabbits, but after
the rabbits have disappeared. The number of lynx sold is
not necessarily an index of the number of lynx, but rather
an index of the number of lynx and the ease with which they
may be caught. ..Although lynx is a notoriously stupid
animal, it is more easily caught after the food supply of
rabbits has decreased. Mice3 have been shown to be scarcely
less important in the Labrador. In 1903 it was reported that

N 1Graphs of these statist^ from 1821 to 1910 may be found in E. T. Seton,
The Arctic Prairies (Toronto, 1911), pp. 103-106, and from 1821 to 1914 in G. C.
Hewitt, The Conservation of Wild Life in Canada (New York, 1921), Ch. IX.
Mr. D. M. Gowdy, in a study on fur production, has reproduced the latter
graphs and extended them to include the data of the Dominion Bureau of
Statistics. The latter has included in his study miscellaneous information on the
important fur-bearers, and also on important factors of production, including
Hudson’s Bay Company personnel and organization, United States organizations,
improved methods of trapping, prices, fashions, conservation measures, fur¬
farming, and Canadian exports.

2See E. T. Seton, The Arctic Prairies, Ch. XIV.

’See W. B. Cabot, Labrador (Boston, 1920), Ch. X.

The Problem of Supply

mice were relatively scarce and foxes relatively abundant.
In 1904 mice were more abundant, and fox returns relatively
scarce.. _ With arr abundant supply of food foxes were difficult
to trap. In 1905 mice were most abundant, and in 1906 they
disappeared. The result was a marked increase in fox
returns. Cabot has thrown out interesting suggestions as
to various other results. Ptarmigan, caribou, fish, predatory
animals, predatory birds, Indian life, and the fur returns of
Labrador were affected by this fluctuation irTTood supply.
With fox and other furs, even more than with lynx, fur
returns represent not numbers of animals, but numbers of
animals, scarcity of food, and ease with which they may be
caught. Variations of fur returns have been shown in some
cases to be the* result of still other factors. Fluctuations in
muskrat returns are alleged to result from climatic changes,
especially rainfall. Seasons1 of high wafer~ are favourable
to the muskrat, and seasons of drought and low water un¬
favourable. Various diseases are also important in reducing
numbers during a period of overcrowding.

The causes of cyclical fluctuations in animal life have
occasioned considerable speculation. It has been suggested
that temperature is a primary controlling factor, and “that
fluctuations will increase in volume as the temperature of the
isotherm decreases”.2 The admittedly greater fecundity of
northern forms of life has been urged as partly responsible
for this tendency. A further result of rapid increase in
numbers is shown in over-population, overcrowding, the
spread of epidemics, reduced fecundity, sex inhibition, loss
of vitality, and weakness of the young. Interrelated factors
include the activity and vitality of bacteria responsible for
the spread of disease and the varying supplies of vegetation
and food. The importance3 of climate and food supply has

’See R. McFarlane, Through the Mackenzie Basin (London, 1908), p. 245.

2A. B. Howell, Periodic fluctuations in the numbers of small mammals (Journal
of Mammalogy, vol. 4, no. 3, August, 1923, p. 150). Also E. T. Seton, op. cit.

8C. S. Elton, Periodic fluctuations in the number of animals: their causes and
effects (British Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 11, October, 1924).

The Fur-Trade of Canada

been stressed in a recent study. It has been shown that
lemmings have an average periodic fluctuation of 3^ years,
the maxima occurring "synchronously in North America and
Europe, and probably all around the Arctic regions. The
varying hare in Canada has a period of 10 and 11 years.”
An attempt has been made to link these varying periods of
3| and 10 to 11 years to the sunspot cycle,1 and consequently
to climate. On the other hand, the evidence is not conclusive.
Other studies2 have shown a shorter cycle — varying as
follows: hare 8.5 years, lynx 9.5 years, red fox 9.6 years,
cross fox 9.4 years, black fox 9.6 years, Arctic fox 4.2 years,
marten 9.5 years, fisher 9.7 ye'ars, mink 9.7 years. No
evidence of correlation of this cycle with lake levels3 appears
to exist — not even in the case of the muskrat. The extreme
difficulty of gathering adequate data makes impossible a
conclusive study. If data were available for certain strategic
posts over a long period of time, information might be
gained on the emigration of animals as well as on production.
It is difficult to state whether the increase in the fur-trade
and the capture of large numbers of carnivorous animals has
in any sense enhanced the maladjustment incidental to the
lag between the rate of increase of rodents and carnivores.
Statistics during a very early period of the trade should
throw some light on the problem. It appears to be generally
admitted that the rate of increase of rodents, especially in
more northerly areas is more rapid than the increase of
carnivores — the lag between the rates of increase disturbing

’See the work of E. Huntington, especially Climatic Changes: their Nature
and Causes (New Haven, 1922) and Earth and Sun (New Haven, 1923).

2C. G. Hewitt, The Conservation of Wild Life in Canada (New York, 1921),
Ch. IX. Mr. George Walker, a trader at Little Salmon on the Yukon, informs
the writer that rabbits, especially the young, on the upper Yukon were practically
wiped out in the winter of 1924 and 1925 by a sudden and early drop in tempera¬
ture to 40°. This disappearance was not in accord with the regular cycle. As
usual, lynx_and fox were scarce. Rabbits were numerous on the Lower Yukon
in 1926.

J* ^ 1 • White, Altitudes of Canada (Commission of Conservation Report
Ottawa). ’

The Problem of Supply

the balance at periodic intervals. Whether this lag is com¬
plicated with periodic climatic changes and changes in food
supply still remains largely an unsettled problem, although
opinion appears to favour the belief that temperature
especially has appreciable significance. With present know-,
ledge it is impossible to state, and under present competitive
conditions utopian to ask, whether a restriction of the fur
catch, especially of lynx, during a period of minima for
rabbits, would have any effect in maintaining a better
adjusted balance, and reducing the violence of fluctuation of
all furs. It is quite possible that careful research and adequate
conditions of control might increase materially the supply
of Canadian furs. Under present competitive conditions,
however, this can scarcely be expected. No single interest
can afford to adopt measures of conservation so that other
interests may gain.

It is a fundamental point that the supply of rodents, or
the food of important fur-bearing animals, can be increased
rapidly, and that the supply of these fur-bearing animals
can likewise be increased.

The problem remains as to the trend of fur production in
Canada. Comparison over long periods are unusually diffi¬
cult. However, returns of the Hudson’s Bay Company in
1865 for the districts of the northern department1 are
available, and these may be compared with similar areas
reported in the statistics for 1923-4. For marten 1865 may
be regarded as a trifle high for an average year, and 1923-4
as a very good average year, possibly a trifle low. In the
Mackenzie River and Athabaska districts, 30,369 marten
skins were sent out in 1865, and in the Northwest Territories
and Alberta (roughly comparable areas), 13,350 in 1923-4.
In English River, Cumberland, Saskatchewan, Severn River,
Red River, and Norway House, 18,197 marten were exported
in 1865, and in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, 6,386 in 1923-4.
Possibly a better method of comparison, the northern depart-
ment excluding Lac la Pluie (now in Ontario) produced in

lSee R. MacFarlane, Through the Mackenzie Basin (London, 1908), p. 272.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

1865 a total of 45,817 marten. Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
Alberta, and the Northwest Territories produced 19,734 in
1923. A similar comparison for fisher in the same areas
shows a production of 1,074 for the northern department in
1865, and 845 in 1923-4 for the four governments. More¬
over, 1865 was a low year for fisher and 1923-4 an average
year. Manitoba is the most important area, and the omission
of Lac la Pluie is responsible for a reduction of 322. For
similar areas 5,687 otter were supplied in 1865, an average
year, and 3,720 in 1923-4, a very good year. Minks suggest
an important difference — 21,915 in 1865, and 78,070 in 1923-4.
Beaver shows a slight decline from 67,389 in 1865 to 62,555
in 1923-4. The effects of regulation renders analysis of slight
value. Black bear remained stationary, 2,464 in 1865, and
2,465 in 1923-4. Lynx declined from 25,186 in 1865, a low
year, to 15,227 in 1923-4, a very good year. Red fox increased
from 8,697 to 29,487. Wolves declined from 7,696 in 1865,
a high average, to 2,575 in 1923-4, a bad year. For the
cheaper furs the trend is too conspicuous to warrant com¬
parison. Skunks, muskrats, badgers, and ermines have
shown a remarkable increase.

If we allow for probable inaccuracies in statistics, certain
conclusions are suggested. Some important fur-bearing
animals have declined appreciably in the past half-century.
The causes of the general changes have been already sug¬
gested. A rising price for fine furs has led to increased
trapping, to further decline, to a rise in price, and thus
cumulatively to reduced numbers. Larger numbers of
trappers, interested primarily in higher returns, have con¬
centrated their attention on the most profitable furs. In¬
crease in settlement, improved transportation facilities, more
effective trapping methods, and the rise in price, have been
responsible also for the tremendous increase in the supply
of cheaper furs. Smaller animals, which are unusually
fecund-, which have a wide range of food, and which are
difficult to capture, have not suffered materially through the
increase in trapping, and the rise in price. But undoubtedly

The Problem of Supply

the trend will proceed along the lines of increasing scarcity
of finer furs, with the result that steps will be necessary
to ensure a continued supply.

The development and improvement of steel traps has
been an important factor, Large-scale standardized pro¬
duction has greatly increased the output; and the stronger,
lighter steel traps have made it possible for the trapper to
carry larger numbers to the interior. It has been estimated
that eight to nine million traps are produced yearly by about
fifteen manufacturers. With the improvement in traps has
gone an increase in the number of white trappers. Indian
trappers, although regarded as more skilled in trapping, are
not as systematic in setting traps as the white man. The
pecuniary return has a more powerful influence on the white
trapper. The increase in the number of white trappers has
been marked, and has accompanied improvements in methods
of trapping. New transportation lines incidental to the
construction of the railways have been important factors in
encouraging the white trapper. Changes in business con¬
ditions have also had an important effect. A period of high
prices, such as that which followed the Paris Exposition, or
which occurred during the war, when rats were said to have
brought as high as $4.00 at Cumberland House, greatly
increases competition. During a period of unemployment
and depression, large numbers become trappers. If there
is severe competition among traders the profit is larger from
trapping than trading, and traders become trappers. The
whole sweep of machine industry has been responsible for a
reinforcing of the ranks of the trappers. The trapper is’,
primarily an individualist who finds it difficult to work
under an employer, or to adjust himself to the demands of
modern industry.

The industry is carried on by an individual trapper, and
usually not more than two trappers work together, each
setting lines in a different direction. The trapper’s capital
and equipment1 vary greatly with the individual and the

^ee Appendix B.

The Fur-Trade of Canada

country. To get into the trapping grounds, the “outfit”
can be floated down stream in roughly built and inexpensive
scows with a home-made sail, or taken in boats, canoes, or
“kickers”. The scow may be broken up and the lumber
employed for building. A base cabin is usually built on the
bank of one of the main streams, preferably near a small
tributary in which fresh water and fish may be found without
difficulty. A clump of large spruce trees or other timber
sufficiently large to furnish logs for the cabin is a further
consideration. A log cabin of the required dimensions is
built, the logs chinked with moss, and the roof made with a
layer of poles covered with moss and dirt. A provision
house or cache — a small log structure built a considerable
distance from the ground and supported by four stout poles
covered with tin to keep out mice and other marauders
and possibly a drying frame, if fish are abundant, or a kennel,
if the trapper has dogs, complete the establishment. Small
boards of various sizes for stretching the skins are easily
supplied. The trap-line varies greatly. In many cases the trap¬
per inspects the country, and in the early autumn places a
line and builds small cabins at intervals of ten to fifteen miles
over a line extending from twenty to sixty miles and beyond.
These cabins are usually eight by ten feet, built of light logs
at a height to clear the head from six inches to one foot.
Logs are put down, and moss laid on each log to be packed
by the next top log. The roof is covered with moss and dirt.
A small cabin may be built in three to four days. Each cabin
is supplied with one outfit of blankets (two double blankets),
pots, and pans, to save packing.

Other trappers take less elaborate precautions. The
trapper waits for the first snowfall, inspects the district to
find where tracks are most abundant, and then builds small
shelters. More energetic trappers build no shelters, carry a
tent, or sleep out, and set out the traps, visit them weekly,
or as often as convenient, and at the end of a month or so
reset the traps on another line. The number of traps varies
from 100 to 250, and are valued roughly at $1.00 per trap.

The Problem of Supply

Additional equipment for this work includes a camping outfit.
Dogs are regarded with disfavour by many trappers. Dog
feed must be supplied, and this is expensive in time or money.
I he trapper must provide for feed during the summer.

Returns vary appreciably. They depend on the trapper’s
experience, foresight, and' energy, his knowledge of animal
habits, of trapping methods, of the country, and of fur, his
bargaining ability, the prices of fur, cycles of fur production,
forest fires, and his luck. An average of $200 to $300 profit
is given by many trappers. Others are said to have earned
in some seasons from $1,500 to $2,000. An unusual catch
at Fort Simpson of 129 marten in one season by one trapper
gave an even larger profit. Many trappers undoubtedly lose
heavily with changes in prices, and in animal migrations.
New trappers and competition seriously reduce profits. Less
respect is paid to the unwritten law regarding the sanctity
of trap lines. Trap lines may be registered, as in British
Columbia, but competition is serious in any case. A skilled
trapper usually acquires the essential knowledge of the
industry in two or three years. Each animal has its own
peculiarities, and allowance must be made for numerous
factors in each set — the depth of the snow, possibility of
drift incidental to the character of the bush, of shelter, and
of the season. Allowance must also be made for probable
animal migrations and cyclical fluctuations. Old trappers
are very cautious about information on deadfalls, snares,
traps, baits, and the usual stock in trade of a trapper’s
knowledge. Each trapper to a large extent has his own
formulae for getting fur. Disputes are numerous on the
merits of sizes and manufacture of traps, on the season for
skins, and other problems of trapping. Large numbers of
magazines v and articles are available offering advice as to
various sets and devices, but these are regarded with an
interest not always sympathetic. The returns may be sold
to the nearest post or sent out to be sold at a per cent, com-

The Fur-Trade of Canada

mission. The trapper1 spends his money in the summer,
and returns with an outfit in time to start the next season s
work.

A variation of trapping has developed in some centres
in the capture of animals, especially foxes and coyotes, in
the summer, keeping them until the winter and killing them
when the fur is prime.

The technique of the trapping industry favours an increase
in the number of white trappers. Machine industry has
made possible a marked increase in variety and quantity of
supplies which can be taken to the trapping grounds. The
capital required is not an important obstacle, since an
increasing number of traders are willing to “stand ” a trapper
to supplies. The apprenticeship is not extensive, since a
fairly large number of people have been accustomed to
farming, to frontier life, and to trapping. The ranks of the
trappers can be increased rapidly because of this large
reserve.

The prospects are not promising. It appears probable
that competition among traders will increase with the
constant improvement of transportation facilities. The small
experienced trader has certain advantages under conditions
of favourable transportation over the large company. He
is more actively interested in the trade. He is in a position
to study a local situation more thoroughly, and to act with
greater promptness. Small traders have not been slow in
presenting their case to the government or in protesting

*For information on trapping of various animals, see publications of the
A. R. Harding Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio, and current publications,
such as Family Herald and Weekly Star, Hunter, Trader and Trapper, and
With Rod and Gun in Canada. See also Agnes Laut, The Fur Trade of America
(New York, 1921), and The Story of the Trapper (Toronto, 1902), and the works
and articles of Arthur Heming, for miscellaneous information on methods of
skinning various animals, treatment of skins, and other details. Very valuable
information on the trapping of various animals is also available in B. R. Ross,
A Popular Treatise on the Fur-bearing Animals of the Mackenzie River District (Can¬
adian Naturalist and Geologist, 1861, and R. G. Hodgson, Trapping in North¬
ern Canada (Oshawa, 1925).

The Problem of Supply

against the larger company’s activities in that direction. A
small organization is commonly obliged to resort to greater
activity in pushing the trade. Small companies have adopted
a modification of the old North West Company’s policy in
leasing the posts to private individuals for a percentage of
the profits with interesting results. The problem of all new
competing companies with a large number of posts is primarily
one of personnel. The Lamson-Hubbard Company un¬
doubtedly failed to appreciate the necessity of securing a
large number of reliable, experienced, energetic, and aggres¬
sive traders. The policy followed by their manager, Mr.
Bryan, of giving post managers independent control had its
disadvantages under these circumstances. The control
exercised by Mr. Bassett, another officer of that company,
had its disadvantages, which were equally in evidence. No
form of control could be built up to supplant the inadequacies
of the personnel. On the other hand, larger numbers of
traders and trappers are gaining a more intimate acquaintance
with the country and the trade. Governmental regulations
alleged to have been passed through the influence of large
companies to keep out the white trapper cannot be regarded
as wholly successful. These regulations include setting aside
of large Indian reserves on which the white trapper is for-*~~"*
bidden, and the payment of large licence fees by the traders
and trappers. Competition is increased in the restricted
areas on which white trappers are allowed to trap. White
trappers must go farther afield to find territory which has
not been worked over. Moreover, the payment of a licence
fee necessitates more vigorous trapping to enable the trapper
to make a profit above his heavy expenses. Arguments
against the white trapper to the effect that he traps per¬
sistently, and wipes out the fur, and that the regulations are
designed to keep out the white trapper, to an appreciable
extent lose their force. Licensed traders must in turn
stimulate the trappers whom they have outfitted to greater
activity in order to make a profit above their heavy expenses.

The white trapper has penetrated far down the Mackenzie

The Fur-Trade of Canada

River. There is evidence that the regulations cannot be
enforced with the limited staff and the vast areas in which
they are to apply. In view of these considerations, prospect
of the disappearance of competition is slight, in spite of
temporary checks which may be adopted restricting the
white trapper and the white trader.

The problem is to some extent related to the policy of
the Indian Department. The Indian Department of the
Canadian government has adopted a consistent policy of
giving a fixed annual payment, and in addition various
goods, to the Indians. To a large extent this policy involves
a continual subsidy to the fur-trade and to the missions, as
is well shown in an interesting extract from the work of an
old fur-trader. “Drever said to me, ‘God, Mack! You
have got them well trained. But how about the other bands? ’
I said, ‘Every band will do just the same as you have seen
done to-day.’ And so they did. Each band came up as they
were paid by the Agent, and did exactly the same. We had
three days of it in the store night and day. The third day
the Boss took off his coat and went at the trading with the
rest of us. Five hours after the agent had finished paying,
my cash balanced exactly with the amount the agent had
paid out. We had made a clean sweep, and the treaty
payments at Crooked Lakes were over for that year.”1
Goods were sold immediately after the treaty at high prices
after allowance had been made for heavy overhead costs,
and high charges of transportation. The effects are less
marked under conditions of competition, but it is well known
that many important fur-traders acquired sufficient capital
through following up treaty-making parties to engage in the
fur-trade on a larger scale.

Aside from the view held by missionaries, Indian agents,
and some of the trading companies, that the white trader
and trapper has an unfortunate influence on the Indian, the
question .of ^competition has other problems. Requisitions

lN. M. W. J. Mackenzie, The Men of the Hudson’s Bay Company (Fort
William, 1921), p. 112.

The Problem of Supply

are made out from year to year by the fur-trading companies
on the basis of the last year’s turnover. Goods are brought
in to feed and clothe the^ white population and the Indians,
Agriculture is necessarily limited, especially at the more
northerly posts. Game,, including moose, ducks, geese,
rabbits, and fish, are in some instances protected, but such
protection, because of the vastness of the area, the limited
supervision, and the difficulty of framing adequate regula¬
tions, is not important. In many instances, as, for example,
in regard to the regulations incidental to the Migratory Birds
Convention Act, complaints are numerous and little sym¬
pathy can be expected. With the close of navigation the
food supply is limited to these sources. Following conditions
of severe competition and high prices, such as in 1921, the
supply of food in the posts is exhausted rapidly. If rabbits
are scarce at this time, and other developments reduce the
available food supply, the Indians undoubtedly suffer. The
reserve kept by the Indian agent may even prove inadequate.
Competition does not permit a careful estimate of the exact
needs of the situation in the requisitions of the companies.
Moreover, unsuccessful competitors, faced with heavy over¬
head charges and material losses, have been known to turn
to such profitable business as the sale of lemon extract and N
other deadly concoctions. The situation is complicated in ,
that a scarcity of rabbits and food supply is, as a rule,
followed by scarcity of fur and inability to purchase supplies.
The enforcement of the game laws is closely related to the ^
fur- trade. Competition renders impossible co-ordination
between the post managers, such as is necessary to distribute
supplies to consumers evenly throughout the year.

An important post which has heavy overhead charges
and high costs of transportation, such as the posts on the
Liard River, with approximately 200 people, may have one
company import1 125 tons of freight, including 30 tons of
flour, 2 tons of lard, If tons bacon, 15 tons groceries, 1 ton
rice, roughly 50 tons of food, the remainder being hardware

!See Appendix C.

100

The Fur-Trade of Canada

and dry goods. The total returns of fur floated down stream
may exceed 2 tons. The whole balance of supplies can be
planned with appreciable foresight under one company.
With the addition of a competing company, which plans its
requisitions on similar data, the result is one of unusual
uncertainty. Competition is not in the best interests of the
" fur-trade or of the Indian. The fur-trade, as carried on over
wide areas thinly populated, and requiring heavy capital
investment in transportation and trading posts, can only be
carried on in the long run under conditions, not of cut-throat
competition, but of monopoly. Police protection is not
adequate to offset the effects of 'competition as they have
always appeared under those conditions in the fur-trade.
There are indications that the trade in the more distant
areas is about to enter on an era of competition similar to
that which has characterized the trade in earlier periods.
It is scarcely possible that the Indian Department or any
authority will be able to prevent developments of sinister
import to the Indians.

These considerations are aside from the problems raised
by the transient trader interested in getting the largest
possible returns in the shortest possible time, without regard
to the long run results of that policy. It would not be
difficult to collect a series of statements, beginning with the
works of Champlain and ending at the present time, each
with a burden to the effect that competition in the fur-trade
is intolerable to the trader, to the Indian, and to the nation
which hopes to conserve its fur resources. Increasing com-
r petition among traders favours increased trapping and more
\ persistent destruction of animals. The constant improve¬
ment of transportation facilities renders competition inevit¬
able, and greatly increases the strain on regulations designed
to check the destruction of fur- bearing animals. ft is
questionable whether regulations can be elaborated to an
adequate extent to check the forces which are let loose by
new improvements in transportation and by the effects of
modern machine industry.

IV. THE MANUFACTURE OF FURS1

§1. Technique

The marked increase in the demand and in the price of
furs, and the consequent rapid increase in production, have
had pronounced effects on the manufacturing industry. A
■ tremendous increase in production has brought about marked
improvements in manufacturing processes. The manufacture
of furs has passed through an industrial revolution, and as in
other commodities the pressure of demand has been a
dominant factor.

The highly technical character of the industry favoured
the organization of furrier’s guilds which guarded the secret
processes of manufacture and handed them on from genera¬
tion to generation. During the early periods the guilds were
strongly entrenched. As in the manufacture of other com¬
modities, increasing pressure from the larger supplies of furs
led to specialization within the guilds, and eventually, with
the development of more efficient methods of treating furs
on a large scale, the guild gradually declined. So general
has become the diffusion of knowledge as to secret processes
that schools have been organized with classes in furriery,
and elaborate manuals2 describing in detail the methods of
manufacture have appeared on the market. The marked
increase in manufacturing in the United States during the
war following the disruption of European manufacturing

■Mr. S. A. Snyder, in his thesis on the manufacture of furs and related
industries, which is in the possession of the Extension Department, University
of Toronto, has given a comparatively detailed account of the processes involved
in the handling of the furs from the trapper to the consumer.

2C. J. Rosenberg, Furs and Furriery (London), and W. E. Austin, Principles
and Practice of Fur Dressing and Fur Dyeing (New York, 1922), are examples.
The following pages will describe the industry as it has been outlined in these
works. *

102

The Fur-Trade of Canada

greatly furthered the tendency toward wide dissemination of
knowledge.

The development of manufacturing on a large scale
assumes the existence of large quantities of uniform, stand¬
ardized raw material which can be treated in a uniform,
standardized manner and turned out as a uniform, standard¬
ized product. Furs of a uniform character are notoriously
difficult to obtain in large number. For the same species of
| animal the furs will vary in size and condition with the age
and condition of each animal, with the season in which they
have been caught, with the district, with the methods of
capture, with the methods in which they have been taken
from the animal, and with the methods of treatment prior
to shipment.

The method of taking the pelt from the animal by the
trapper is closely dependent on the demands of later pro¬
cesses. With several animals “the skin is cut from the tail
down the centre of the belly to the jaw after which it is care¬
fully removed from the body and spread out flat. It is then
nailed on boards, fur side inwards.” These are referred to
as open skins. The skins which are usually ‘opened’
are seals, chinchilla, beaver, nutria, moles, bears, marmots,
Persian, and all Chinese skins.” “Cased” skins are those
which are cut down the hind legs on either side of the tail
and then pulled off over the animal’s front feet and head,
leaving the fur inside. These skins are stretched on boards
of various sizes with the fur inwards and then dried. Oc¬
casionally, as in the case of a particularly fine marten skin,
the fur will be left outside to show the depth of the dark

colour. Obviously the less promising pelts are handled in the
usual way.

The skins brought in by the trapper include a great
variety of each species and a number of species. According
to the demands of the later manufacturing processes, they are
sorted and graded on the basis of size, condition, season, and
colour1. It is a common statement that no two men, no

‘Actual quotations for Januarj^ 1917, paid by^erchants in the trade at

The Manufacture of Furs

103

matter how experienced, will grade the same furs in the
same way. After the preliminary grading, the furs are
shipped to large centres in which the demand for fur products
is concentrated, and to which the purchasers of large quanti¬
ties of fur for manufacture may come without inconvenience.
The necessity of purchasing large numbers of furs of a uniform

Large Small

Muskrat Spring, Winter, and Fall

Fall

Kitts

N.Y., P.A., N.J., N. Eng., E. Canada

.05

Mich., So. Wis., Ohio, Ind., Ill., W.Va.

.05

Central & S. Ohio, Ind., Ill., W.Va.,

Ky .

.05

Central & S.Pa., N.J., Del. & Md. . .

.05

Va., Carolinas, Tennessee .

.04

Mo., Ark., Mans., Pac. Coast .

.04

Wis., Minn., Iowa, Neb .

.04

Black .

.08

large and showing the variation in prices of raw furs at the time, according to
geographical differences in source of origin.

See A. Belden, op. cit., p 483.

Mink

East. Canada, New Eng.,

Minn., N.Wis., and N.

Mich . ■ .

Wis., N.Iowa, and Dakotas
Mich., N.Ohio, N.Ind., N.

Ill .

S.Pa., S.N.J., Del., Md., &

S.Iowa, Neb., Kans., & N.

Mo....v .

Pac. Coast, & Rocky Mt.

States .

S.Car., Tenn., Miss., Ala.

& Ga .

S.Mo., Ark., Okla., Tex.,

Large

Medium
No. 1

Small

No. 2

No. 3

No. 4

5.00

3.50

2.50

.75

.25

4.50

3.25

2.25

.25

4.50

3.25

2 25

2.25

.60

.25

i 3 .50

2.50

1.75

.60

.20

3.25

2.25

1.50

.60

.20

3.25

2.25

1.50

.60

.20

3.00

2.00

1.50

.40

.20

3.00

2.00

1.50

.40

.20

. 2.75

1.75

1.35

.40

.20

2.75

1.75

1.35

.40

.20

2.75

1.75

1.35

.40

.20

2.50

1.65

1.25

.40

.20

2.25''

1 .60

1 10

1.10

.35

.15

104

The Fur-Trade of Canada

character for manufacturing purposes is the occasion for a
further grading of furs carried out with the greatest possible
accuracy. The difficulty of examining large numbers of
furs and the necessity of examining samples of the grade of
fur which is purchased have been responsible for the emphasis
placed on the auction system. Sales of large quantities of
furs must be conducted with the utmost confidence in the
grading of the furs by the sellers. A system of grading has
been devised showing the character of the furs and the
district from which they have come, and ensuring an accurate
description.

After the furs have been accurately graded and large
numbers of the same grade packed together, they are sent
to the manufacturer to be dressed. A brief description of
the processes involved in dressing is essential to an under¬
standing of the organization of the industry. For purposes
of dressing, winter skins are divided into two classes, close-
grained and open-grained. The close-grained skins include
sable, ermine, marmot, and skunk, and the open-grained
skins, fox, wolf, and bear. The furs are scraped and cleaned
of superfluous flesh and fat. The first process of “liquoring”
is applied to all skins. Fat and fleshy skins are placed in
tanks of salt water for about twenty-four hours to soften
and free the skin of grease. Various modifications of this
process are used for different skins, including the addition of
certain chemicals to the water, the length of time involved,
the use of wet sawdust rather than water, and the working
of the skins with a beaming knife. The result is the softening
of the hard, dry pelts which have been shipped by the
trapper. After this process the skins are thoroughly rinsed,
and are placed in a hydro machine, which consists of a large
iron cylindrical bath containing a perforated basin which
revolves at a high rate of speed. The skins are placed with
the fur outside, and the rapid turning of the machine removes
the watef. The process again varies with the species of fur.
d he skins are taken from the hydro to a large drum about
ten feet in diameter. The drum contains oak, beech, birch,

The Manufacture of Furs

105

or any hard, light-coloured sawdust, and is rotated slowly
from one to two hours. By this means oil and dirt are
removed from the hair. 'The sawdust is in turn removed by
caging - •' The skins are placed in a protected wire cage
with one-inch mesh. This mesh allows the sawdust to leave
the cage when in motion. A quarter of an hour to an hour is
required to free the skins from dust. The next process is that
of “fleshing”. All fleshy and fatty materials are removed
from The skin to expose the corium, and provide for the
effective and uniform action of the tanning chemicals. Each
skin is again immersed in salt water for an extended time to
make it more pliable. The “flesher” removes superfluous
flesh by passing the skin across a knife. The process requires
considerable skill, because of the thin character of the skin
and its liability to damage from cuts. Fleshing machines
have been devised for certain skins in which a rapidly revolv¬
ing blade removes the flesh from the skin, but, on the whole,
the process is carried out by manual work. Various furs
require special treatment in the use of chemicals and other
devices to remove the flesh and the operation is an extremely
delicate one. The high value of furs necessitates the greatest
caution. The skins are then taken to a drying room. The
drying is carried out gradually, and usually with steam heat,
until the skins are perfectly dried.

After these preliminary operations the skin is practically
ready for the final process of tanning. For this process
the skins are again softened by an application of salt water
as a preparatory measure. As in the leather industry, the
process of tanning is extremely varied and complicated. The
character of the tanning materials depends in part on the
character of the pelt, on the time, labour, and cost of materials,
and on the character of the dyes and chemicals which are
to be used after tanning. The salt-acid tan, or pickle tan,
is extensively used because of its cheapness and ease of
application. A typical formula includes a 10% salt solution
with half an ounce of sulphuric acid to each gallon. The
liquor is applied evenly on the skins with a brush, and then

106

The Fur-Trade of Canada

they are placed in a pile for a period of time varying from a
few hours to two or three days. The tanned skin is of a
milky-white colour. A large number of variations in the
character of the formula, in the acids and materials, in the
methods of treatment, in the temperature and conditions
under which tanning takes place, and in the length of time
required, are characteristic of the tanning material. Mineral
tans include chiefly alum and chrome. The alum tan gives
a leather greater stretch and flexibility than with pickle tan.
It is used especially for rabbits and moles and for better
grades of tan for such furs as martens, muskrat, and squirrels.
Alum or aluminium sulphate and salt are the usual con¬
stituents in proportions of two of alum to one of salt, or in
other varying proportions. The formulae are innumerable.
Chrome tan has very limited uses because of the great care
and accuracy necessary in the treatment, and because the
leather has a pale blue-green tint. On the other hand, the
leather is very durable and very resistant to water. Chrome,
alum, and salt are the principal constituents. In chamois
dressing, various animal fats are used. Oils which absorb
oxygen from the air, such as seal oil, whale oil, cod liver oil,
and which are referred to as “drying oils”, are of greatest
importance. The oil is rubbed on the flesh side of the skins.
“They are then folded up and put into a ‘kicker’ where they
are tramped for two or three hours to work in the oil.”
The kicker is a receptacle, capable of holding from 1,000 to
1,500 muskrat skins, in which two wooden hammers turn
and pound the skins. The pelts are hung up in a warm room
to permit the oil to oxidize, another coat of oil is applied,
and the same process repeated. After the tanning process
is complete, the excess oil is removed, and the skins are washed
and dried. Fine furs, such as marten and mink, are placed
in ball drums in which balls of varying sizes and weights,
depending on the character of the skin, work in the oil
while the drum is being rotated. Various formulae containing
formaldehyde are used for tanning purposes. The resulting
leather combines the properties of alum tan and chamois tan.

The Manufacture of Furs

107

This process is claimed to give immunity from the attacks
of vermin and moths. Various other tans, and combinations
of tans, are used for the manufacture of special leather.
The relatively slow progress of chemistry in explaining the
process of tanning is responsible for the tenacious hold of
innumerable open and secret formulae.

With the completion of tanning, the skins1 are dried.
Great care must be taken to ensure steady and rapid drying
from the standpoint of economy of time and the effects on
the leather. Considerable progress has been made in the
evolution of efficient drying machinery. The conveyor dryer
is a steel enclosure holding air, heated by steam coils to a
uniform temperature, through which the skins pass on hori¬
zontal conveyors. Drying requires from one to eight hours,
depending on the character of the pelt. After the drying
treatment, oil is usually placed on the leather, and the skins
are put in a tramping machine. The addition of oil im¬
proves the softness and flexibility of the pelt and increases
its resistance to water. The next step is the “staking”
process, in which the skins are drawn and worked '‘over the
edge of a dull blade. The leather becomes soft and flexible,
and the skins are stretched to give the greatest possible
surface to the furs. Stretching machines are being intro¬
duced for the cased skins with which one man may handle
up to 6,000 skins per day. The fur is then combed to
straighten out the hair, and beaten to give it beauty and
lustre. Machinery has been installed in some plants to carry
out this work. The skins are again put through the drum
process with sav/dust to be thoroughly cleaned and polished.
After the drum process, “caging” is repeated to remove the
sawdust. Finally, some of the fine furs are put through a
process in which the longer top hairs are cut out leaving
the soft under-fur. The work is done to an increasing extent

‘Skins which improve on being worked in the length, such as skunk, mink,
and kolinsky, are roped in the wet state after tanning. They are drawn across
a rope which binds the hairs more closely together, makes the skin longer and
narrower, and gives the fur a better appearance.

108

The Fur-Trade of Canada

by unhairing machinery. Cheaper furs are unhaired by
cutting the fur and the hair to the same level. Other methods
include a variation of the very old device of warming the
skins to a high temperature, placing them on an “unhairing
block”, and drawing out the top hairs by the roots. With
these final changes the fur is prepared for the dyeing process.

The effect of the pressure of supply on the dressing in¬
dustry has been shown in the increasing use of machinery
adapted to handling larger quantities of skins. T he changes
in the dyeing industry have been no less pronounced. Not
only have larger quantities of furs necessitated the develop¬
ment of improved methods of dyeing, but the increasing
supply of cheaper furs has stimulated a demand for methods
of improving the appearance of these furs as imitations of
the more expensive varieties. In fact, improved methods of
dyeing have greatly widened the market for cheaper furs.

The processes involved in dyeing are as complicated as
those in dressing. The first process in the preparation of the
hair or fur dyeing is known as “killing”. No conclusive
explanation has been given of the character of this process.
It is held by some authorities1 that the surface of the natural
hair is covered to a varying extent “with a fine coat of fatty
material which renders the hair more or less impervious to
dye solutions.” The application of dye to natural furs
produces varying results depending on the part of the hair
to which it is applied, the top-hair or under-hair, the character
of the hair, depending on the animal and on the part of the
animal from which it is taken, and on various other factors.
The process of “killing” is that of removing the external
covering by the use of . various chemical alkalis, such as
ammonia, soda ash, caustic soda, and caustic lime. The
characteristics of various furs determine the chemicals used
and the method of treatment. The problem involved in the
treatment of all furs arises from the different reactions of
the leather and of the hair to chemical solutions. The
leather must be oiled, preferably with “an inert mineral

xSee W. E. Austin, op. cit., chap. X, passim.

The Manufacture of Furs

109

oil”, to prevent reactions from alkalis used to “kill” the
hair. This problem relates primarily to the dip process in
which the furs are immersed in the chemical solutions. The
brush process in which the solution is applied to the hair
with a brush avoids the difficulty, but at the same time is
much more expensive. Commonly a combination of the two
processes may be used for an adequate treatment of the top-
hair and the under-hair. After treatment by the dip process
“the skins are drained and rinsed in fresh water, and then
entered into a weak solution of an acid in order to neutralize
any remaining alkali.” Finally the skins are washed in
fresh water, placed in the hydro to remove all trace of water,
and prepared for the next process.

The application of dyes1 at this stage produces varying
results. Uniformity may be obtained, but in many instances
the dye is taken up very loosely and washes off very easily.
To fix the dye in the fur with greater permanency, and also
to secure certain results from dye colours, the furs are treated
with mordants. The mordants are certain chemicals which
appear to combine with the hair and also with the dye. The
chemicals, which are usually compounds of aluminium, iron,
chromium, copper, and tin, are of such a character that they
easily dissociate in water, forming oxides and hydroxides
which unite with the hair. The character of the process is
by no means thoroughly understood, and a great variety of
methods of treatment are involved. After the skins have
been immersed in the mordant solution for from six to
twenty-four hours, they are removed, drained, and rinsed in
water to remove the excess of mordant liquor. In this moist
condition they are taken to the dye baths.

The final step in the process of dyeing is carried out
with two methods, as in “killing” the furs. The brush process
is used to colour the tips and upper part of the hair, and the
dip process to colour the entire fur and the leather. The
importance of the dip process increased with the discovery
of chemicals which could be used effectively as dyes without

1See ibid. , chap. XI.

110

The Fur-Trade of Canada

injuring the leather. The increasing demand for more efficient
methods of handling large quantities of furs in a uniform
method led to the adoption of the dip process on a wider
scale. The invention of brush-dyeing machines has been
the result of similar factors. The dip process involves the
placing of the furs in a dye bath until the proper shade is
obtained, the removal of the furs, washing off excess dye, and
drying and finishing with the usual machines for drying,
cleaning, and “caging”. Commonly a combination of the
dip and brush process is used to obtain special results. The
soft, flexible skins are then sent to the furrier.

The dyes vary greatly in character, in methods of treat¬
ment, and results. For mineral colours compounds of lead
and manganese, and occasionally iron, copper, cobalt, nickel,
and combinations of these compounds, are used. These
colours are applied with brushes. Chemical solutions which
break upon contact with the hair and form an insoluble
compound, or which produce an insoluble compound on the
hair when brought into contact with another chemical
solution, are employed. Vegetable dyes were formerly of
greater importance and involve the use of various secret
formulae. These formulae include as important constituents
tannin materials, such as nutgalls of various species, sumach
and chestnut extract, wood dyes as logwood, Cuba wood,
Brazil wood, quercitron, cutch, and tumeric. These are
applied with both the dip and brush methods. Aniline black
has been developed with the coal tar dye industry. This
dye has been employed since 1862. Important advances
have been made especially since 1900 with the experimental
work of Green and others. The development of the coal
tar industry and the production of synthetic dyes has been of
fundamental importance to the fur-trade. Since 1888
numerous fur dyes have been developed. With the tremend¬
ous improvements of the dye industry cheaper furs have
been produced in imitation of more expensive furs, the cost
of production has been reduced, the market for furs widely

The Manufacture of Furs

111

extended, and the possibilities of changes in colour through
changes in fashion rapidly increased.

With the completion of dressing and dyeing, the furs have
reached the stage in which they are prepared for the con¬
sumer. Most fur-bearing animals are small in size,1 and

lAn approximation as given in connection with the London fur sales for the
year ending March 21, 1906.

Kind of Fur Size in Inches

Badger . 24X12

Bear . 72X36

Beaver . 36X24

Cat, civet . 9X 4|

Cat, wild . 30X15

Ermine . 12 X 2j

Fisher . 30X12

Fox, blue . 20 X 7

Fox, cross . 24 X 8

Fox, gray . . 27X10

Fox, red . 24 X 8

Fox, silver . 24 X 8

Fox, white . 20 X 7

Lynx . 45X20

Marten, Baum . 16X 5

Marten, Stone . 15X 5

Mink, American . 16 X 5

Muskrat, brown . 12 X 8

Otter, sea . 50 X 25

Raccoon . 20X12

Sable, American . 17X 5

Sable, Russian. . . . 15X 5

Seal, fur . . 40X20

Skunk . 15 X 8

Squirrel . 10 X 5

Wolf . 50X25

Wolverine . 1QX18

Weights of Dressed Furs per square feet

Name of Fur Weight in Ounces

Ermine . If

Otter (unplucked) . „ 4

112

The Fur-Trade of Canada

varying number of skins of varying weights are needed in
the production of the finished product.1 The^choosing of
skins2 for the manufacture of a garment involves unusual

Otter (plucked) .

3 15/16

Beaver (sheared) .

“ (plucked) .

3 15/16

Raccoon .

Skunk .

Marten (Baum) natural. . . .

“ Stone .

Muskrat (natural) .

“ (plucked) .

Lynx, natural .

“ dyed .

Fox (Northern), natural. ...

“ dyed .

Seal .

Sable .

Silver Fox .

iFor a careful study of the problems of each species of fur, see C. J. Rosen¬
berg, op. cit., pp. 65 ff.

2Some of the important uses of different furs are shown in the following

table :

Muskrat (natural) . Ladies’ coats, linings, caps, muffs, scarfs, motor

robes, mitts

Muskrat (dyed) . Coats, muffs, scarfs.

Beaver . Ladies’ and Gents’ coats, scarfs, muffs, and caps.

Beaver (sheared and dyed) . . . Coats, scarfs, muffs, caps.

Mink . Wraps, coats, scarfs, muffs, neckpieces.

Marten . Chokers, scarfs, muffs, wraps.

Marten (stone) . Chokers, muffs, scarfs.

Weasel . Scarfs, muffs, hats, wraps.

Skunk . Coat trimming, muffs, scarfs, coats.

Fox . Scarfs, muffs, neckpieces, trimmings.

Fox (dyed) . Scarfs, muffs, neckpieces, trimmings.

Mole....> . Wraps, cloaks, scarfs, muffs.

Wolf . Scarfs, muffs, trimming.

Wolf (dyed) . Scarfs, muffs, trimming.

Lynx . Scarfs, muffs, trimming.

Cat . Scarfs, muffs, trimming.

The Manufacture of Furs

113

skill and care, porting is one of the most skilled occupations
in the trade. The surface and the underground of the skins
musTBe' carefully studied in order that the furs will match
when sewn together. The matching is done with regard to
quality, colour, size, and' economy. After the selection of
furs the cutter begins his work. The cutter is a highly skilled
workman who fits together the numerous skins with the
greatest possible economy and the best possible results. He
must be able to judge where the cuts should be made from
the standpoint of the character of the seams used, economy
of material, and, above all, appearance. Scarcely less im¬
portant in the production of high-class furs than the cutter
is the nailer. The skins are dampened on the leather side
and stretched with great care to produce the best results in
appearance, and economy in the use of the furs. For all
furs the greatest variety is possible in the use of the skins
and the appearance of the finished product is essentially
dependent onThe skilled workmen. Machinery is of relatively
minor importance in the manufacture of fur goods.

After the cutter and nailer have completed their work
the furs are sewn, lined, and finished. Sewing machines have
come into prominence with new inventions since about 1880.
Further inventions and improvements in 1901 and 1911 per¬
mitting the use of high-speed machines driven by motors
have greatly widened the market. But some exclusive firms
engaged in the manufacture of high-class furs still adhere to
hand-sewing for the best results. Following a careful in¬
spection, the finished product1 is sent to the show room to

Various related products of the fur industry have not been discussed in
detail. Large quantities of waste material consisting of small fragments which
cannot be worked into the fur garments dre consumed in various ways. Bear¬
skin is in great demand for the manufacture of paint brushes; beaver and muskrat
are used in the manufacture of hats; badger, long-haired pieces, for paint brushes;
fox, for trimmings for foot-stools, foot-bags, gloves, and the tails for the manu¬
facture of boas; hare, the ears are used in the manufacture of hunting caps and
muffs; skunk is used for linings, the heads for decorating hunting muffs, the tails
for paint brushes; rabbits, the large heads are made into cuffs, the small heads
into trimmings, the tails into paipt brushes; marten, the foreheads for mosaic

114

The Fur-Trade of Canada

be sold to the consumer. The later stages are carried out
most successfully with skilled labour.1

coverings of foot-stools, the tails for trimming fancy goods, making paint brushes,
the claws for linings; mink, the tails for trimming and dress borders; otter are
used for hats; raccoon for sleeves and linings; seal for caps. Modern methods of
manufacturing felt hats follow closely the methods developed in the manufacture
of beaver hats. The blowing machine was an important device, by which a
strong current of air did the work of separating the coarse from the fine fur.
The finest grades were blown farthest by the draughts, and the coarse grades
dropped nearest the fans. The grade of fur required for the inside of the hat is
taken to the forming machine. The necessary amount is placed on a feeding
apron, and run through rollers revolving at about four thousand revolutions per
minute. The fibres are separated in this \yay and thrown opposite a slowly
revolving copper cone. This cone is about three feet high and finely perforated.
An exhaust draft within the cone draws the fibres to the outer surface, and holds
them in place until the whole has a delicate covering of fur. A fine spray of
boiling water causes the fur to set or felt. The thin form is removed and other
layers added, shaped, and moulded. This process requires highly skilled labour.
Dressing, finishing, polishing, trimming, and binding complete the process.

The development of the manufacture of felt hats or fedoras is shown in the
following table:

Fur Felt Hat Industry (United States Census)

1899

1904

1909

1914

1919

No. of establish-

ments .

171

216

273

224

176

Persons engaged. . .

19,814

23,666

27,091

22,932

21,318

Capital invested . .

17,000,000

23,000,000

36,000,000

40,000,000

58,127,770

Salaries & Wages. .

10,000,000

13,000,000

16,000,000

14,000,000

24,000,000

Value of Products.

28,000,000

37,000,000

48,000,000

37,000,000

83,000,000

The growing importance of machinery and large-scale production is shown in
the slight increase in the number of establishments and in the number of people
employed a'nd the marked increase in capital invested and the value of the
products. The industry has gained appreciably through improved methods of
dyeing, which permit the extension and development of fashions.

Brush-making is of relatively slight importance. Badger hair is used in
the manufacture of shaving brushes, and sable hair has distinct characteristics
for the manufacture of brushes for art painting. The process is largely carried
out by hand. The hairs are taken from the skin and sorted according to colour
and length.. The knot of hair is dipped into resinous cement and fixed to the
handles. The fur-trade is important for the manufacture of soft brushes only.

XA list of wages paid to various operatives gives some indication of their
relative importance. The standard is a forty-eight hour week. Learners (male

The Manufacture of Furs

115

The importance of skilled workmen in the manufacture of
fur goods has a direct relation to methods of retailing furs.
Manufacturing firms become retailers. The expensive char¬
acter of fine furs necessitates the development of a custom
trade, in which garmepts are individually fitted. Large
numbers of small retailers are engaged in the trade to meet
the individual demands of consumers.

The possibilities of imitating fine fiy^has also led to the
appearance of large numbers of small retailers, who are in a
position to sell imitation furs at a profitable rate. The names
of the most valuable fuis have been given to the furs which
are produced on the largest scale. As a result legislation has
been enacted, and various organizations1 have attempted
to prohibit the practice of misnaming furs. On the other
hand, the larger houses have gained through the general
uncertainty, since the consumer is obliged to rely to an
increasing extent on an old and established reputation.

Other important factors affecting retail organization are
changes in fashion, the development of the fur renovation
business, the increasing demand for furs, the seasonal char-
acter of the sales, and the demand for more effective means
and female, fifteen years of age) start at 15/- per week, rising to 55/- in the
seventh year of employment. After seven years, or after reaching the age of
twenty-four, the worker ceases to be a learner. Apprentices commence at 12/-,
rising to 42/-. Cutters, with four years’ experience, are paid 80/-, with less than
four years’ experience 65/-; nailers, 60/-; dressers, 70/-; sorters, 80/-; and
the piece rates are from 1/8 to 2/2f per hour. Female learners (machinists)
are paid 15/- to 35/- in the fourth year. Female machinists, 45/-; liners and

finishers, 40/-. See J. C. Sachs, op. cit., p. 124.

iSee F G. Ashbrook, Trade names in the fur industry, Journal of Mam¬
malogy, vol. 4, November, 1923, pp. 216-220. In England the Fur and Skin
Trades Section of the London Chamber of Commerce (Incorporated) has carried
on a campaign against misdescription of furs under the Merchandise Marks Act,
1887. The London Fur Trade Association issues at present a list of incorrect
and approved descriptions of furs that has been agreed upon by the British Fur
Trade Alliance and the Drapers Chamber of Commerce of the United Kingdom.
Legislation has been enacted in various states and in the provinces of the
Dominion requiring that an accurate description of the fur should accompany
the imitation name. It has been estimated that ninety per cent, of the furs sold
in the United States are given imitation names.- See Appendix D.

116

The Fur-Trade of Canada

of preserving furs. The improvement of the dyeing industry
has made possible rapid changes in the appearance of furs
necessitated by changes in fashion. Fashion changes in other
' clothing and garments have immediate effects on fur
garments. The institution of annual fur fashion shows has
stimulated the trade in fur garments materially. Con¬
sequently it has become increasingly essential that pre¬
cautions should be taken by the retailer and manufacturer
to guard against loss through changes in fashion. The loss
is partly offset through the ability of fashionable centres to
dispose of unsold stock in more remote districts in which the
fashions have lagged appreciably." On the other hand, the
tendency for this lag to disappear with improved methods
of communication and the rapid changes in fashions has
greatly increased the demand for fur and occasioned a
substantial rise in price. In the changes the large retailer
with a reputation to maintain finds it necessary to dispose
of his stock through annual late winter and early spring sales
to individual purchasers or to small retailers.

The increasing price of furs and the scarcity has been
responsible for the development of renovation work which
can be carried on with the equipment of a small retailer.
Large numbers of garments worn for a certain period of
time are changed according to changes in style or for the
purpose of eliminating unsuitable pieces. The growing
importance of cheaper and less durable1 furs has furthered
the renovation industry.

1W. E. Austin, op. cit., pp. 5-6.

Name of Fur Durability: Otter = 100

Astrachan . • .

Bear, brown or black .

Beaver, natural .

Beaver, plucked .

Chinchilla .

Civet cat .

Coney .

Ermine .

Fox, natural .

The Manufacture of Furs

117

The manufacture and retailing of furs is a business of a
pronounced seasonal1 character. The consequent heavy
overhead has brought several problems. For the large retail

Fox, dyed black . 25

Genet . . . 35

Goat . 15

Hare . 05

Krimmer . 60

Kolinsky . 25

Leopard . 75

Lynx . 25

Marten, Baum, natural . 65

Marten, Baum, blended . 45

Marten, Stone, natural . 45

Marten, Stone, dyed . 35

Mink, natural . 70

Mink, dyed . 35

Mink, Jap . 20

Mole . 07

Muskrat . 45

Nutria, plucked . 25

Opossum, natural . 37

Opossum, dyed . 20

Opossum, Australian . 40

Otter, land . 100

Otter, sea . 100

Persian lamb . 65

Pony, Russian . 35

Rabbit..". . 05

Raccoon, natural . 65

Raccoon, dyed . 50

Sable . . . 60

Sable, blended . 45

Seal, fur . 80

Seal, fur dyed . 70

Skunk, tipped . 50

Squirrel, grey . 20-25

Wolf, natural . 50

Wolverine . 100

1The number of male wage-earners in the Canadian fur goods industry in
1922 was lowest in March (898), and highest in October (1,106). January to
April were slack months, and large numbers were hired in each month to October.

118

The Fur-Trade of Canada

stores, price policies must be arranged to obtain the largest
possible returns during the fall season when the furs are in
demand to offset a loss which occurs in the sales of the furs
during the latter part of the winter season. Manufacturing
also dovetails closely with the retail business. Raw furs come
on the market from January to March, and after dressing
and dyeing are made up into the finished products for the
August and September sales. Large retail houses have also
adopted the policy of constructing cold storage plants* 1 and
soliciting the deposit of furs on the part of customers for the
summer months.

The marked increase in demand for furs has had still other
results. Departmental stores have engaged to an increasing
extent in the sale of products made from staple furs. An
increase in consumption has led to the production of furs
on a large scale and to the development of a standardized
marketing organization. The revolution which has taken
place in marketing machinery following the development of
communication and transportation facilities has affected furs
as well as other commodities.

The number of female wage-earners was lowest in April (1,121), and highest in
November (1,551). The slack season continued until July, and the number of
employed increased rapidly to November. The plants were in operation on an
average of 279.9 days in the year, and were idle an average of 24.1 days.

lThe “moth” is one of the worst enemies of fur goods. The eggs of the
insect are laid at the roots of the hair. The larvae, on hatching, attack these
roots with disastrous results. A temperature of 45° F. is sufficient to prevent
damage. Cold storage plants usually maintain a temperature of 20° to 26°.
Two types of mechanical refrigeration are in use: (1) Direct, in which coils are
arranged for the circulation of brine or other cooling mixtures within the storage
room; (2) indirect, in which the air-cooling room is separated from the storage
room, and the two are connected by a system of ducts through which the cold
air is circulated by a fan. The latter is more expensive, but avoids damages
from moisture or leakage of the pipes. The storage room is carefully insulated
with cork, felt, cement, firebrick, and other materials. An air space is also a
common device. A large modern plant involves an expenditure of $200,000.
For protection against theft, fire, and insects a charge of 3 per cent, of the value
of the garments is made by the retailers. The discovery of new methods of
controlling destruction by insects may seriously affect the cold storage industry.

Industrial Organization

119

The retailing of furs appears to fall into at least threg
distinct classifications: (1) The exclusive stores located at
the fashion centres and engaged in retailing primarily the
high-class, expensive fur products. (2) The standard market¬
ing machinery devised for the handling of large quantities
of cheaper furs. (3) The small specialized retailer who
engages in a custom trade, purchasing his furs directly from
the dresser and dyer or from the wholesaler who manufactures
fur goods on a large scale.

§2. Industrial Organization

The organization of the manufacture and sale of fur goods
has changed materially during the past three-quarters of a
century, but especially since 1900, and in a revolutionary
fashion since 1914. The early importance of the skilled
workman gave countries which had been long established
in the industry a pronounced advantage in the dressing, dye¬
ing, and manufacture of fur goods. Moreover, it is main¬
tained that these advantages were additional to climatic
considerations and the character of the water1 available.
Germany had distinct advantages in dressing and dyeing
in the possession of a large number of skilled workmen.
With increase in the number of furs manufactured, large
numbers were sent to Germany, and the advantages of large-
scale production in lower costs became important. More¬
over, the development of the coal tar dye industry in Germany
greatly strengthened her position. Other countries of Europe
were also engaged in the dressing and dyeing industry, and
prior to the war specialization was pronounced. Germany
specialized in smaller skins, especially squirrel, but also
Persian lamb and fox. England excelled in larger varieties,
and London was famed as a centre for dyeing seal. France

_ V _ _ _ _ -

^he importance of water in dyeing and dressing has been greatly over-em¬
phasized, according to Austin. See W. E. Austin, Principles and Practice of
Fur Dressing and Fur Dyeing (New York, 1922), ch. VII. On the other hand,
see C. J. Rosenberg, Furs and Furriery (London), -ch. VII.

120

The Fur-Trade of Canada

concentrated on muskrat and black rabbits, and Belgium
on "fancy” dyes.

The war had serious effects on the organization of the
fur-trade through the disappearance of “Leipzig as an im¬
portant dressing and dyeing centre. The result has been a
marked development in England 'and in North America.
This change is strikingly shown in statistics of the dressing
industry in the United States1 for 1914 and 1919. Several
tendencies are in evidence. The increase in the size of the
plants__is_conspicuous. The average capital employed in
each plant was more than doubled. The number of plants
increased from 96 to 141, and the total capitalization from
approximately $2, 500, 000 to$9, 000, 000. The number of plants
owned by corporations more than trebled, whereashHeTiumber
of plants owned by individuals declined. The number of
employees in plants owned by corporations and owned by
individuals increased, but the increase was more pronounced
in plants owned by corporations. Wages . increased more
than six times, as was to be expected from the importance
of skilled labour. The_value of the product increased over
seven times. The Statistics warrant the conclusion that
machinery has become increasingly important, demanding
larger quantities of capital. On the other hand,' it is evident
that skilled labour still occupies a very important place in
the industry.

In Canada similar tendencies have been in evidence,
although the statistics are not sufficiently adequate to
warrant a detailed analysis. The number of establishments
from 1910 to 1924 increased from 6 to 8 — and the amount of

>FUR DRESSING IN THE UNITED STATES.

Ownership

Year

No.

est.

Indiv.

idual

j corpor-
1 ation

| Other |

Total

Capitaliz¬

ation

App. Av.
Capital

Wages

Value of
Product

Av. No.
employees
Plants of
Individuals

Av. No.
employees
Plants of
Corporations

1914

•

$2,489,868

$26,001

$906,030

$2,875,036

1919

141

$8,867,403

$630,000

$6,338,835

$20,384,569

Industrial Organization

121

capital increased from $198,500 to $926,270. Five plants
were situated in Quebec, two in Ontario, and one in Manitoba.
In 1924 the dressed fur, industry employed 429 male wage-
earners and 75 female wage-earners and paid $466,148 in
wages. Of 3,473,909 skins dressed and dyed, 1,615,520 were
muskrat and 649,836 rabbit. The foreign trade in dressed
furs throws further light on the situation. In the period from
1909 to 1913, Canada exported to Great Britain in 1912,
the most important year, $10,147 of dressed furs and in 1911,
the least important year, $1,827. During the period from 1921
to 1924, exports were $30,902 in 1924, the most important
year, and $13,119 in 1922, the least important year. In the
earlier period, Canada exported to the United States $41,413
in 1909, the most important year, and $11,420 in the least
important year, 1913, as contrasted with the latter period
in which she exported to the United States $48,194 in 1923,
the best year, and $7,748 in 1924, the worst year. Canadian
exports of dressed furs increased slightly to the United States
and materially to the United Kingdom. Fluctuations were
pronounced in both cases. Imports from the United Kingdom
in wholly or partially dressed furs reached the high point of
$384,094 in the early period in 1913 and the low point of
$177,877 in 1909. In the later period the high point of
$82,775 was reached in 1921 and the low point of $36,869
in 1922. Imports from the United States in the early period
reached the high point of $325,113 in 1913 and the low
point of $169,789 in 1909. In the later period the highest
point was $538,035 in 1922 and the lowest point $282,331 in
1924. Imports of dressed furs from the United Kingdom
declined rapidly and from the United States increased slightly.
If we allow for the change in price level, foreign trade in
dressed furs to the United States increased slightly in both
exports and imports. Foreign trade with Great Britain
increased rapidly in exports and declined rapidly in imports.
Canada shared in the general shifting of fur manufactures
from Europe to North America.

With undressed furs the evidence does not show con-

122

The Fur-Trade of Canada

clusively the development of Canadian industry, but rather
the increasing importance of the United States as an im¬
porter. In foreign trade Canada exported to the United
Kingdom $2,628,994 in the high year of 1913 and $1,071,313
in the low year of 1909. In 1923 exports totalled $4,743,986.
Exports to the United States were $1,257,976 in 1909, and
$2,184,275 in 1913, and increased to $11,290,514 in 1923.
Exports to the United States increased materially and to the
United Kingdom slightly. Imports from the United Kingdom
were $379,194 in 1913 and $136,346 in 1909. In 1923 imports
declined to $48,518. Imports from the United States totalled
$3,561,227 in 1913 and $1,939,755 in 1909. In 1923 they
had increased to $5,089,114. Imports increased slightly from
the United States and declined rapidly from the United
Kingdom. Exports of undressed furs to the United States
increased rapidly and imports increased slightly. Exports
to the United Kingdom increased slightly and imports de¬
clined rapidly. The United States became an increasingly
important market for Canada’s undressed furs. Canada
became less dependent on the United Kingdom for raw furs,
and apparently North America was becoming more in¬
dependent of Europe.

In the foreign trade in manufactured fur goods, Canada
exported to the United Kingdom $25,266 in 1913 and $12,776
in 1909. In the later period Canada exported $146,078 in
1921 and $17,225 in 1923. Exports to the United States
were $35,207 in 1913 and $7,804 in 1909. In the later period
exports were $51,301 in 1922 and $23,644 in 1924. Exports
increased slightly to both the United Kingdom and the
United States. Imports from the United Kingdom were
$445,317 in 1913 ana $227,0/1 in 1909, and in the later
period $48,042 in 1921 and $27,744 in 1923. Imports from
the United States were $325,113 in 1913 and $169,789 in
1909, changing to $95,778 in 1921 and $60,666 in 1924.
Imports of manufactured fur products declined materially
from both the United States and the United Kingdom, while

Industrial Organization

123

exports increased slightly. Canada became to a marked
extent the manufacturer of her own fur goods.

The importance of the fur goods industry is shown in the
Report on the Fur Goods Industry in Canada. In 1924 there
were 218 individual establishments reported, of which 115
were in Ontario, 67 in Quebec, and 16 in Manitoba. The
capital investment was $9,910,979, an average of $45,463;
the total number of employees on wages was male, 930,
female, 1,058; total wages, $1,916,421; cost of materials,
$7,344,156; and value of products, $12,265,371. The products
of greatest value were ladies’ fur coats and jackets, $6,854,936,
and stoles and other neckwear, $918,437. Custom work,
repair work, and storage contributed the important total
of $2,782,645. Capital investment for Canada included:
$2,276,573 in land, buildings, and machinery; $4,788,658 in
materials on hand and stock in process. The relatively small
amount invested in machinery and tools and the large amount
of materials on hand are significant testimony to the character
of the industry. The cost of raw furs and skins used in the
process of manufacture was $1,866,983, and the cost value
of dressed furs and skins $4,029,891. Power was obtained
primarily from electric motors, of which there were 249 in
the trade, with a capacity of 337 horse power. The industry
is essentially dependent on small units of power and on
adequate numbers of skilled labourers. Of 218 establish¬
ments, 153 employed less than 10 persons and 37 from 10
to 20 persons. Of these establishments 62 produced goods
valued at less than $10,000, 42 between $10,000 and $20,000,
and 44 between $20,000 and $50,000. To a very important
extent Canada has extended the dressing and fur goods
industry following the developments incidental to the war.
There are indications that the expansion has been too rapid
in the slight decline from 1922 to 1924.

The importance of skilled labour to the development of
fur manufacturing cannot be overemphasized. American
expansion has been dependent to a very large extent on the
immigration of skilled workmen, and a glance through the

124

The Fur-Trade of Canada

names of important American fur dealers leaves a distinct
impression1 of the importance of German workmen. During
the war the immigration of high-class dressers and dyers
seriously affected English manufactures and proved of the
utmost value to the American trade.

The increasing importance of the fur industry to North
America is illustrated in part by the growth of organizations
designed to protect its interests. In 1898 the Fur Merchants
Credit Association of New York was incorporated2 to improve
the general business tone of the trade. In 1908 the incorpor¬
ation of the dressers and dyers of New York, Jersey City,
and Newark in the Fur Dressers and Fur Dyers Board of
Trade3 proved an important step in correcting abuses of
the trade. The Associated Fur Manufacturers4 were organ¬
ized in 1911 and incorporated in 1912. The organization
conducts a credit bureau for members, promotes the interests
of manufacturers and salesmen, exchanges information, and
establishes uniformity of customs and usages of the trade.
The Raw Fur Merchants Association5 of New York was
incorporated in 1914 to protect the interests of the raw fur
trade. To harmonize the interests of these associations the
Board of Trade of the Fur Industry6 was formed in 1914.
Another organization to control the credit problems of the
trade was formed in 1917 in the Mutual Protective Fur
Manufacturers Association.7 A national organization of the
furriers has developed more recently in the National Associ¬
ation of the Fur Industry. The United States has been
divided into ten geographical districts, from each of which
are to be appointed ten governors. The chairman of each
district is a vice-president of the organization. The branches

lSee the extensive biographical notices in A. Belden, The Fur Trade of America,

(New York, 1918).

JA. Belden, op. cit., p. 50.

‘Ibid., p. 369.

•Ibid., pp. 53-4.

•Ibid., pp. 51-2.

•Ibid., p. 55.

'Ibid., p. 334.

Industrial Organization

125

of the industry include (1) collectors and shippers of raw
furs, (2) raw and dressed fur dealers, importers, exporters,
public fur sales, commission houses and brokers, (3) dressers
a'nd dyers, (4) wholesale manufacturers, (5) jobbers, (6)
retail manufacturers, retailers, fur departments of stores.
A representative of each group acts on the board of governors.
The groups are subdivided according to capital investment.
Class A— $1,000,000 and over. Class B— $500,000 to
$1,000,000. Class C— $250,000 to $500,000. Class D —
$100,000 to $250,000. Class E— $35,000 to $100,000. Class
F — $35,000 and under. The treasurer of each subdivision
is a member of the board. The aims of the organization
include legislation for conservation purposes in various states,
the study of methods to increase sales, and the creation of
good will for the fur industry.

The growth of associations in the fur-trade has been partly
the result of certain tendencies toward localization. The
larger cities constitute the important consuming centres of
fur goods. The effects of changes in fashion necessitate the
closest possible relationship between the retailer, the manu¬
facturer, the dressers and dyers, and the raw fur dealers.
In the United States, New York has approximately 275 fur
merchants dealing in raw, dressed, and dyed skins, or about
nine times the number engaged in the next most important
fur centre. The number of fur manufacturers1 in New York,
excluding makers of fur caps, robes, and heads, totals 1075;
Chicago, 168; Philadelphia, 101; Boston, 60; Milwaukee, 36;
Detroit, 28; Baltimore, 27; Cleveland, 24; Buffalo, 23; San
Francisco, 20; Seattle, 13. The advantages of localization
are shown further in the location of a large number of fur
dealers in the same section of the city — raw fur dealers,
importers, exporters, dyers and dressers, and manufacturers.
Specialization in manufacture has followed— in ladies’ gar¬
ments, men’s coats, hats, and gloves. Specialization in the
quality of furs— fine furs, seal, fox, marten, made exclusively
into high priced goods — medium-priced furs for general con-

lIbid., p. 45. See also Fur Buyers’ Directory, 1924-5 (New York).

126

The Fur-Trade of Canada

sumption, muskrat, Chinese goats, dogskin — is typical.
Specialization as a result of climatic and geographic factors
is also evident. St. Paul and Milwaukee specialize in the
production of men’s heavy fur coats for sale in the North¬
west.

The dressing and dyeing and manufacture of furs has
shifted to a very appreciable extent to North America,
especially since the war. In spite of the overwhelming im¬
portance of skilled labour throughout the industry, the in¬
creasing population of North America has been of dominant
importance. The increasing demand for furs has led to the
development of the fur industry through the migration of
skilled labour from European countries. The demand for
1 large quantities of furs and the increase in the supply of
cheaper furs have facilitated the increase in the use of machin¬
ery. Progress in industrial chemistry and the development
of synthetic dyes have also had an influence. Undoubtedly
further chemical research and increasing use of machinery
will greatly strengthen the position which North America
attained during the short period of the war. On the other
hand, skilled labour must continue to remain of the utmost
importance. Europe will probably continue to hold a promin¬
ent position in handling the finest furs, and in the manufacture
of the highest-priced products, because of her skilled labour.

V. MARKETING ORGANIZATION

The geneial trend of manufacturing development has been
of fundamental importance in the realignment which has
taken place in marketing organization during the past half
century, and especially since the beginning of the war. It
has been found impossible in the discussion on manufactures
to avoid a discussion of sales organization.1 On the other
hand, the importance of marketing organization warrants a
more thorough treatment.

Primarily, fur is a commodity obtained over vast, in¬
accessible, thinly populated, northern areas during the winter
seasons. . The lightness, scarcity, and value of fine furs as a
commodity are prerequisites essential to trade. The com¬
modity is brought from these areas, chiefly by water trans¬
portation after the opening of navigation, to densely popu¬
lated north temperate areas. The increase in population,
through the spread of colonization and settlement throughout
large proportions of these northern areas following the dis¬
covery of America and the opening up of Siberia, has been
the important factor in the changes of marketing organization
in the fur- trade. J^rjor to the settling of these areas a large
closely knit organization was essential for the careful planning
and exporting of supplies and the importing of furs during
the navigation season. In thinly populated areas, with
limited means of transportation, dependence on water navi¬
gation was inevitable. Long voyages to the important land
areas, increasingly heavy expenses with penetration to the

‘Mr. G. H. Simpson, in a study of “The sales organization of the fur-trade”,
in the possession of the department of University Extension, University of
Toronto, has given a description of the marketing organization of some of the
more important countries. He has included not only the sales of raw furs, but
also of the finished product. ,•

128

The Fur-Trade of Canada

interior, and increasingly long upstream, voyages with sup¬
plies, and the length of time involved in the transport of
supplies and furs in the interior, necessitated heavy invest¬
ment of capital, control by joint stock companies, cut¬
throat competition, and its natural sequence, monopoly. ..The
collection of large quantities of raw furs was 'dependent on
long rivers with extensive tributaries draining wade areas.
The mouths of large rivers were strategic points for the con¬
duct of the trade. The importance of these strategic points
was a factor responsible for the numerous wars between
nationalities and the close relationship between the joint
stock companies and the governments concerned. The pres¬
ent marketing organization of the world is closely dependent
on historical background. The continuity of trading organiz¬
ation has been conspicuous, especially during the pre-war
period.

In Siberia, trappers banded themselves in associations
varying in size from six to forty men, left in the autumn for
the trapping grounds, and returned wdth their furs for the
market in December or early in the following year. The
character of the hunt varied in part with the animals caught
and with the nature of the country.1 The furs were taken
by merchants, merchants’ agents, and by individual traders
and trappers to the fairs of Russia.2 Three important fairs3
tapped the trade of Siberia (i) Ostrownoje: (240 verst from
Nishne-Kilymak), beginning at the end of February; (ii)
Gijiga in March; and (iii) Anadyr. Larger fairs in turn
brought together the furs wdiich had been traded at various
smaller fairs. Irbit4, at the confluence^ the Irbit and Niza
rivers, has held an annual fair since 1643. This fair wras held

Joseph Klein, Der Sibirische Pelzhandel (Bonn, 1906), pp. 32-36.

2H. Lomer, Der Rauchwarenhandel (Leipzig, 1864), pp. 38 ff. Statistics on
the amount of trade carried on at the various fairs are included in the description.
See A. Belden, The Fur Trade of America, pp. 441-5, for a description of the
present situation. For a further description of fairs see H. Poland, Fur-bearing
Animals in Nature and in Commerce (London, 1892), p. liv-lvi.

3Joseph Klein, op. til., pp. 87-93.

4 Ibid ., pp. 93-99.

Marketing Organization

129

in February (about February 8 to March 10) and was im¬
portant for its sale of winter-caught furs. Numerous fur
companies were represented, and large numbers of furs were
bought to be resold at Leipzig and London. Chinese and
Russian furs were exchanged at Kjachta,1 usually in August.
Niji-Novgorod (near th<? confluence of the Volga and the Oka
rivers) absorbed large number^ of furs not disposed of at the
earlier fairs. The fair was held from August 6 to September
6. Numerous fairs were held at various points throughout
Russia — each specializing in the furs produced in the im¬
mediate area, and serving as an outlet to Russia’s total
production. Vladivostock, Nikolaevsk, and Khabarovsk
were important outlets to Kamchatka and the neighbouring
territories. The general tendency is shown in the collection
of furs and their exchange for provisions and supplies passing
through strategic centres to the outside consuming world.
The construction of railways and increase in settlement have
seriously affected the marketing organization and decentral¬
ized the trade. At present furs are exported to important
world sales by a government monopoly.

In the transfer of furs from Asia to Europe, Leipzig2
occupied a dominant position. Of the average total world
production for three years from 1907 to 1909, it was estimated
that of 360 million marks 160 million marks were traded at
Leipzig. Three fairs were held, in January, April, and
September. The business was conducted by upwards of one
hundred fur merchants,3 specialists in various furs and classes

'Ibid., pp. 99-107. % v

2For a description of the importance of Leipzig, see H. Lomer, op. cit., pp.
41-46. On the present situation in Leipzig see H. Clad and W. Lange, Der
Rauchwarenhandel und seine Beziehungen zu Leipzig , (Leipzig, 1923), passim.

3An interesting description of the abilities of a commission agent and a mer¬
chant is given in H. Lomer, op. cit., pp. 101-109. They must be able to speak
and write several languages. The merchant must have a thorough knowledge of
world production, world trade conditions in general, and the fur-trade in particu¬
lar. He must have extensive foreign connections, ample capital, and credit.
He must be an efficient organizer, and have a thorough grasp of the customs and
practices of the trade.

130

The Fur-Trade of Canada

of furs, and commission agents trading for foreign houses.
The furs were purchased for home consumption and for ex¬
port. The auction sale has never been successful. In 1875,
Joseph Ullmann, an important fur dealer in the United States,
inaugurated two annual sales in January and September at
Leipzig for American furs, but the arrangement was discon¬
tinued at the end of four years. The elaborate marketing
organization which had grown around the dressing and dyeing
industry at Leipzig as a centre for an important share of
Russia’s export trade and also of North America s surplus was
disastrously affected by the war. Undoubtedly, its access¬
ibility to Russia will remain as a dominant factor in its post¬
war revival, but a return to its pre-war position will be slow.

The accessibility of London to North America as a pro¬
ducing centre has been an important factor in its development.
The Hudson’s Bay Company has been an outstanding ex¬
ample of the benefits of this geographic advantage. This
organization has conducted sales as an outlet for furs pro¬
duced in Canada. The sales are held three times a year at
the Public Sales Room on College Hill, in January, March
and October. As has been pointed out the greatest possible
care is essential in grading the furs brought from the posts.
The catalogue has details as to the time and place of sale,
numbers of furs to be sold, conditions of sales, and descriptions
of each lot including the place of origin’, the grades and
number of furs. The same standards of grading are main¬
tained from season to season, unless due notice has been given
to the trade, and every precaution is taken to ensure confid¬
ence in the Company’s furs. Grading is a highly skilled
occupation, and has been for approximately a century in
charge of representatives of four generations in the same

1For a list of abbreviations designating places of origin, see E. Brass, A us
dem Reiche der Pelze (Berlin, 1925), pp. 375-6. Interesting information on the
characteristics of the fur from various districts is also included, pp. 377-9. See
also H. Poland, op. cit., passim.

Marketing Organization

131

family. In the warehouse1 the ground floor is reserved for
muskrat; the first floor for sundry furs, such as skunk,
squirrel, hair seal; the second floor for beaver and otter; the
third floor for the more valuable furs, such as mai'ten, mink,
fisher, lynx; and the top floor, which has the best available
light, for foxes, wolves, polar bear. A fur show is held during
the week prior to the date of auction, to allow dealers to be¬
come acquainted with the merits of various lots. The
auctions are held in the sales room, and the auctioneer, with
the assistance of brokers, sells the various lots from the
catalogue.

In recent years the sales of the Hudson’s Bay Company
have been coordinated with the sales of furs by other houses.
The fur warehouses are located in close proximity to College
Hill, and dealers are able to visit each sale in turn. A custom
has grown up according to which the first goods to be sold
are those from China and the Far East. The Australian
offerings follow immediately, and the sale of fur seals on the
market concludes the first week. On Monday of the second
week the Hudson’s Bay Company’s sales are begun. The
furs are sold without a break, and consequently afford an
excellent index of the state of the market. The latter part
of the week is taken up with the sales of fine furs from other
companies. During the third week, staple lines are offered,
and in the fourth and final week South African and lower
grade skins are sold.

Furs sold by other companies are handled largely on a
commission basis. Indeed, the actual arrangement in the
Hudson’s Bay Company is a charge of 5 per cent, by the
London sales office for the handling of the furs allocated to
the producing districts. The growth of the American Fur
Company in the United States and the marketing of the furs
in England led to the development of the commission house
of C. M. Lampson and Company. Sir Curtis Lampson had
been sent as a representative of the American Fur Company

‘See an interesting description in the Beaver magazine, April, 1921; also
E. Brass, op. cit., pp. 371-4.

132

The Fur-Trade of Canada

to London and had developed a large and substantial organiz¬
ation. After the reorganization of the Hudson’s Bay Com¬
pany in 1863, Lampson became a deputy governor,1 and
consequently brought under effective control practically the
whole of the fur-producing area of North America. With the
disappearance of this arrangement, large numbers of com¬
petitors of the Hudson’s Bay Company sold through the
Lampson house on a commission basis. Furs sent from North
American shippers were sorted, graded, and auctioned in a
manner calculated to ensure the confidence of the purchasers
of raw furs at auction sales. In 1912 Fred Huth and Company
entered the market for American furs with the establishment
of public sales. Other firms include Goad, Rigg and Co.,
Culverwell Brooks and Cotton, Flack Chandler, Anning and
Cobb, and Dyster Nalder. More recently established firms
handling African, Australian, Chinese, and Japanese furs
are Barber and Co., Henry Kiver, Thorpe and Wei by, and
Eastwood and Holt.

The growing importance of the commission business in
the fur-trade was significant of the far-reaching changes which
had taken place in the trade in North America. The small
trader was able to compete effectively with the Hudson’s Bay
Company on the London market. The monopoly of the
Company became of less importance with increasing com¬
petition and growth of settlement in the fur-producing areas
of North America. A striking evidence of this change in the
fur-trade came with the announcement in June, 1921, by the
Hudson’s Bay Company that it would purchase furs on con¬
signment for sale at its London auctions. The situation in
which a large and reputable Company had been able to
collect and market furs from its own producing areas for two
and one-half centuries had changed. To preserve the im¬
portance of its auction sales and to support the London fur
market more effectively with its high standards and trad-

1Sir Curtis Miranda Lampson, Bart., deputy governor, 1863-1871. Sir
William Schooling, The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading
into Hudson's Bay (London, 1920), p. xv.

Marketing Organization

133

itions, the Company began an avowed policy of selling furs
on a commission basis. In pursuit of this policy the Company
purchased the warehouses and offices of the A. and W.
Nesbitt Co., which had fallen into difficulties through the
speculative activities of the war and post-war periods. This
company had established connections for the collection of
American, Australian, and European skins and for their sale
at auction in London. The change in policy of the Hudson’s
Bay Company has proved beneficial to the London market,
as well as to the companies immediately concerned.

More striking evidence of the change in methods of
production and in the character of the trade has been shown
in the revolution of the marketing organization in North
America, especially since the war. The development of
dressing and dyeing and of the manufacturing industry, and
the rapid increase in settlement, have had a pronounced
effect on sales organization. In the United States raw furs
had been sent to the European commission houses, especially
those in London and Leipzig. Furs were collected from
trappers and farmers by small country buyers, and sent in
turn to the larger fur centres. The large centres were strat¬
egically located for the shipment of furs. They had the
advantage of a fur organization which continued from an
earlier period. Dressing and dyeing and manufacturing had
been concentrated in these centres, partly through the large
population immediately available, and partly because of the
accessibility of raw furs. St. Louis1 had been an important
fur centre through its central location and through its
location at the junction of the Missouri and the Mississippi,
which gave access to a large territory. Furs were sent by
large numbers of trappers and local buyers to commission
houses in these centres, to be sold in turn for local consump¬
tion, for national consumption, or for export to the European
sales. With improvement of transportation and communi-

‘For an interesting and valuable description of the position of St. Louis in
the fur-trade, see Isaac Lippincott, A century and a half of fur trade at St. Louis,
(Washington University Studies, Volume III, Series IV, Part II, pp. 205-242).

134

The Fur-Trade of Canada

cation facilities and the increase in population larger numbers
of trappers and local buyers were in a position to send returns
direct to the commission houses. Farmers engaged in trap¬
ping as a side line during the winter, and sent furs to the
numerous buyers. The immediate result of the rapid change
was shown in unsatisfactory market conditions.

Collecting firms sent price lists to large numbers of trap¬
pers and traders. The lists included details as to the grades
and as to prices paid for each grade. Each list varied in
meaning depending on the policy of each purchasing house —
liberal prices were offered, and the furs were closely graded
on receipt, or low prices were offered, and the furs graded more
liberally. The results occasioned considerable complaint
from trappers, since they were not in a position to protest
effectively against the grades or against the prices. The
purchasing house was in a position to protect itself against
price fluctuations at the trappers’ expense. Two policies
had developed. The "Western” assortment gave a large
number of grades and prices. The buyer was in a position
to pay liberally for high grades, and to pay low prices for
medium aftd low grades to reimburse possible losses. Ship¬
ping charges and 5 per cent, were deducted from the amount
sent to the seller. The "Eastern” assortment, or one price
method, gave few grades and one price for each grade, and
shipping charges were paid by the purchasing company.
The latter method has found greater favour among shippers
of furs. It is alleged that buying firms on a low market
prefer to purchase on the "Western” assortment basis and
to sell on the "Eastern” basis. The net result has been
general dissatisfaction with the methods of marketing. Grad¬
ing was not carried out with the greatest accuracy, and the
trade was generally in a state of uncertainty.

As a result of this uncertainty, large numbers of trappers
and local buyers brought their furs directly to the larger
houses in the important fur centres and with competition
secured more favourable returns. Various houses despatched
travelling agents to the local centres to buy direct from the

Marketing Organization

135

local dealer and trapper, or established local and permanent
branch houses. The large houses in turn sold the furs in
London or Leipzig, paying the London commission of 6 per
cent, plus freight, insurance, and express, or 10 per cent, for
light furs and 12 to 15 per cent, for heavier furs. Other houses
followed the policy of selling direct to the manufacturer, or
the manufacturer became a direct purchaser of raw furs,
such as was the case with Revillon Freres. The large number
of raw fur collecting houses and manufacturers and the increas¬
ingly specialized character of manufacturing have led to the
growth of the fur brokerage business. Fur brokers establish
close relationships with raw fur dealers, dressers and dyers,
wholesalers and manufacturers, and act as intermediaries in
the exchange of furs between the various houses. The fur
broker has become of greater importance with the establish¬
ment of auction sales in the United States in arranging for
the transfer of furs between European and American auctions.

Raw fur collecting was originally centred to an important
extent in the hands of commission merchants in St. Louis
and New York. In St. Louis, Funsten Brothers and Com¬
pany1 began as fur commission merchants in 1881, and were
incorporated in 1893. Furs were sent to the company by
trappers and disposed of by sealed bids at tri-weekly sales
to St. Louis fur dealers. The purchasers sold the furs in
turn to fur manufacturers and merchants and to the European
auctions. In 1913, the company sold fur seals at auction for
the American government. The outbreak of the Great War
shut off the Leipzig market, and seriously affected London’s
position. American raw fur merchants were left without a
market and without a guide as to general prices. Prices
declined, trapping was discouraged, and the market tempor¬
arily disorganized. After a year of uncertainty an attempt
was made to determine a basis of prices for trade in the
establishment of public auction sales. In 1915, Funsten’s
established and conducted public auction sales in January,

‘A. Belden, op. cit., pp. 83-4.

136

The Fur-Trade of Canada

March, and September. In November of the same year the
New York Fur Auction Sales Corporation was incorporated
with $1,000,000 capital. At the first sales in January, 1916,
heavy offerings were made and the purchasing power of the
American public brought satisfactory results. The experi¬
ment was continued in March and proving equally successful
New York auction sales have become thoroughly established.
A basis of fur prices for the trade was determined and the
general feeling of uncertainty ended. The disappearance of
Russia and a large part of Europe as producing areas had a
steadying effect on prices and was responsible for a marked
rise. Increasing prosperity in the United States as a result
of the war greatly strengthened the demand.

In 1920 the Canadian Fur Auction Sales Company,
Limited, was incorporated with a capital of $5,000,000 to
conduct auction sales in Montreal. Trappers and collectors
send furs to the warehouse in Lagaucheterie St. West, where
they are appraised, cleaned, graded, and put up in lots for
auction. The consignor has the privilege of drawing on the
Company to within 50 per cent, of the appraisal value in
advance of the sale. The furs are auctioned in the ball
room of the Mount Royal Hotel by the auctioneer and
assistant spotters. A commission charge of 5 per cent, is
made, and the purchaser is required to pay 25 cents per lot
and a brokerage charge of yi of 1 per cent, of the purchase
price. The purchaser also pays a packing charge according
to a fixed schedule depending on the variety of the fur.
Charges on silver fox are 75 cents for the first lot and 25 cents
for each additional lot. Heavy furs are charged at $3.00. Since
1920 these sales have become increasingly important in
handling the returns of numerous trappers and traders.
Several smaller sales companies have been organized with
varying results. In 1922 a fur exchange was organized in
Edmonton with a capital of $20,000. A charge of 5 per cent,
is made on all transactions up to $1,000 and 4 per cent, above
that amount. The exchange is open every Wednesday, and
larger sales are held every month. The members of the

Marketing Organization

137

exchange include most of the important buyers. The organiz¬
ation, on the other hand, must compete with numerous large
buyers who are willing to give ample floor space to trappers
and small traders unwilling to pay the commission. The
Edmonton Raw Fur Merchants Association includes local
traders anxious to aid the trapper and small operator in
disposing of his furs. Winnipeg has also inaugurated an
Auction Sales Company with interesting results. The North¬
ern Trading Company has fostered the enterprise by selling
its furs on this market at various times.

The development of the auction sale in North America
has originated in the necessity of establishing dependable
grading systems. It is hardly probable, however, that the
establishment of auctions in North America will seriously
affect the ultimate trade of European auctions. It is quite
possible that the introduction of an efficient marketing
system, which has long since been overdue, may strengthen
the position of the European markets in disposing of the
world's produce. There are, moreover, signs of a relapse in
the post-war American marketing organization which may
further strengthen Europe’s position. In St. Louis, the dis¬
regard of efficient grading is still an important feature. Furs
are sent by small trappers from all parts of the United States,
and paid for on the basis of the price lists issued by various
firms. The furs are graded and the price returned in cash
or in trapping supplies, since the commission house is usually
a supply house as well. But the furs are arranged on the floors
of the sales room according to the species of animal and sold
at auction under sealed bids and in irregular sized lots. The
buyer at auction must base his bid on a cursory examination
of all the furs in the lot. The trapper must accept a grade
which the buyer at the auction refuses to recognize. The
commission house which rests between the upper and lower
mill stones of the fur-buyer and the trapper will probably
protect itself at the expense of the trapper. It can hardly
be expected that this inefficient system of marketing will dis-

138

The Fur-Trade of Canada

place the efficient grading of such organizations as the Hud¬
son’s Bay Company.

The changes in marketing organization are a part of the
general trend which has been shown in production, prices,
regulation, fur-farming, and manufacturing. On the other
hand, they are closely related to a changing phase in western
civilization, and illustrate more clearly than possibly any
other instance certain wider trends. The spread of the price
system can seldom be seen so distinctly. In North America
the price system has spread with the development of uniform
monetary institutions, the increase in education through the
growth of the public school system, the rapid improvement
of transportation and communication facilities, and the con¬
current machine industry. The spread has proceeded
unevenly, penetrating lastly to the more remote districts.
Since fur is essentially a commodity produced in the more
remote areas and consumed in the larger industrial areas, its
marketing organization has been closely related to the price
system. The price system has been retarded by the dis¬
crepancy between the cultural background of large numbers
of fur producers, as with the Indians, and the culture in which
it has had its rise and development. Moreover, the character¬
istics of the commodity forbid a precise standardization, such
as the price system demands for a rapid growth. The varia¬
tions in rapidity of the Spread of the price system throughout
the trade has been an additional factor limiting its growth.
Advantages to be gained through these discrepancies were
the causes of attempts to prevent further change. Monopoly
control, of which the advantages were based partly on dis¬
crepancies in the spread of the price system, was a significant
factor in maintaining a status quo. The effect of these retard¬
ations on the marketing organization has been pronounced.
The spread of competition to the most remote areas and the
concurrent spread of the price system has been an important
factor leading to the establishment of a more efficient market¬
ing organization, but the trade has been remarkably slow in
yielding to modern demands. Even yet the more remote

Marketing Organization

139

areas have to a large extent escaped. But the penetrating
power of the price system and the modern technique1 is
cumulative.

“The radio represents the latest attempt. Fur prices are broadcasted and
picked up in the most remote districts of the Yukon and Mackenzie Rivers.
By following the trend of the market from week to week, the fur-trader in remote
districts is able to buy from the Indian accordingly.

VI. SUMMARY

From a discussion of the various aspects of the modern
fur-trade certain conclusions have emerged which appear to
have a dominant importance. Prices of furs have increased
materially during the past half century and most conspicuous¬
ly for the scarce and more valuable furs. Production has
increased rapidly especially in the case of cheaper furs. The
more valuable furs have shown a tendency to decline. As a
result of these factors protection regulations for the more
valuable fur-bearing animals have become increasingly
evident. A further attempt to increase the supply of more
valuable furs has been shown in fur farming.

The causes of these phenomena are difficult to determine.
Population in the temperate zones has increased appreciably
during the past seventy-five years, but not sufficiently to
explain the general change. The significant factor has not
been the actual increase in population , but rather an increase
in the numbers of the population wearing furs and an increase
in the number of furs worn by the population. These factors
depend on certain cultural factors incidental to western
civilization. The marked improvement in transportation
facilities as shown especially in the automobile industry has
doubtless had its effect in stimulating a demand for furs, but
it hardly appears to be of dominant importance. There are
certainly other contributing factors. The change in manu¬
facturing methods has been partly responsible. The advance
in industrial chemistry as shown in the manufacture and
application of synthetic dyes has made possible the adapt¬
ation of furs to changes in fashions. As a result fur has
become another commodity which contributes to the possi¬
bilities of new fashions. It has been used increasingly as
trimming for dresses since the dye and fur manufacturing
industries have made it possible to coordinate furs with
prevailing styles. Consequently changes in fashions have

Summary

141

been responsible for a marked increase in the business of
renovating furs, but more conspicuously in the demand for
furs adaptable to the manufacture of new styles. With im¬
proved transportation and communication facilities fashions
have become more important to larger numbers of people.
The increase in the number of women’s magazines, the in¬
creasing effectiveness of advertising, and the growing im¬
portance of departmental and mail order houses, have had
.their effects in stimulating demand. All these factors have
in turn led to the introduction of cheaper furs, to the intro¬
duction of machinery on a larger scale, to heavier capital
investment on the part of manufacturers and to the necessity
of securing an adequate supply of raw material as well as
an adequate market. More recently manufacturers through
organizations and associations have consistently developed
the market. The increased purchasing power, especially of
the United States, has been a factor permitting these develop¬
ments.

So far as the supply of fine furs is concerned, these factors
suggest interesting conclusions. This supply may be said
roughly to be limited to northern North America and northern
Eurasia. In both areas increasing settlement, increasing
demands for lumber for building purposes and for pulpwood,
increasing possibilities of agricultural and mineral activities
have seriously affected the supply and threaten further en¬
croachments. In other words, the prospects of a constant
and increasing demand are faced with a prospective and
constantly decreasing supply. This tendency will probably
become cumulative, as has been the tendency with fur-bearers
at present almost extinct — the high price of fur leads to more
excessive trapping.

There is little possibility of increasing the supply of furs
through the opening of new territory. New methods1 of

2 The discovery of methods of deodorizing skunk skins by Adolph Bowsky,
a New York fur dresser, in 1869 (A. Belden, The Fur Trade of America (New
York, 1918), p. 200), and the development of methods of dressing and dyeing
the American weasel during the- war, may be cited as examples.

142

The Fur-Trade of Canada

manufacture and dyeing cheaper furs occasionally lighten
the pressure on finer furs, but demand is persistent. Fur
farming will increase the output of fine fur but as yet the
outcome cannot be predicted with certainty. The great
bulk of the world’s fine fur will continue to be produced by
wild fur-bearers. The supply of wild animals is at present
the crucial factor. Trapping methods may be improved, but
at the risk of exhausting capital resources. Increasing effec¬
tiveness of the price system may stimulate increased trapping
with similar results. So far as Canada is concerned, the price
of fine furs will probably continue at its present high level.
We shall expect increasing regulations and increasing atten¬
tion to fur farming. As yet the probability of actually
increasing the fur supply of Canada and the value of this
important asset through constructive investigation and legis¬
lation furthering the conservation and increase of natural
resources in new countries is notoriously slight. The tenden¬
cies which have been noted in the fur-trade during the past
half century will probably continue with undiminished
strength.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

General works on the fur-trade are not numerous. The most comprehensive
volume is that of Emil Brass, Aus dem Reiche der Pelze (Berlin, 1925). An early
work, especially valuable for comparative purposes, is H. Lomer, Der Rauch-
warenhandel (Leipzig, 1864). Works bearing more directly on the American
trade include A. Belden, The fur trade of America and some of the men who made
and maintain it, together with furs and fur-hearers of other continents and countries
and islands of the sea (New York, 1918); M. Petersen, The fur traders and fur¬
bearing animals (Buffalo, N.Y., 1914); A. C. Laut, The fur trade of North America
(New York, 1921). There is also a book by J. C. Sachs, Furs and the fur trade
(London, n.d.). An important work on Asia is Jos. Klein, Der Sibirische Pelz-
handel und seine Bedeutung fur die Eroberung Sibiriens (Bonn, 1906).

On the subject of fur-bearing animals, several works might be mentioned.
E. T. Seton, Life histories of northern animals (New York, 1909) has been found
useful for the study of North American fur-bearers. Henry Poland, Fur-bearing
animals in nature and in commerce (London, 1892) is very valuable, but rather
out of date. E. Coues, Fur-bearing animals, a monograph of North American
Mustelidae (Department of the Interior, Miscellaneous publications No. VIII,
Washington, 1877), is valuable in a limited field. E. A. Preble, A biological
investigation of the A thabaska- Mackenzie Region (North American fauna, No. 2,
Washington, 1908) is useful in the discussion of a separate area. Charles Mair
and Roderick MacFarlane, Through the Mackenzie Basin (London, 1908), has
much valuable material. The Atlas of Zoogeography, Bartholomew’s Physical
Atlas, Volume V, 1911, and the Atlas of Canada (Ottawa, 1916) should be con¬
sulted.

Material on prices may be found scattered throughout important works on
the fur-trade. Current reports of fur auctions in London, New York, St. Louis,
Montreal, Winnipeg, and other centres are the chief sources. Prices of a limited
number of furs are published in Canadian government reports on prices in general.
Statistics of production are also scattered through various volumes. The annual
report on fur production in Canada issued by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics
is the official source.

Literature on fur-farming has increased beyond all bounds during the past
twenty-five years. The value of works on the technique depreciates rapidly,
and reliance must be placed on fur-trade journals for current changes. J. W.
Jones, Fur farming in Canada (Ottawa, 1914) has been an important standard
work, but, from the standpoint of practical fur-farming has been displaced by
the recent work of J. A. Allen and W. C. S. McLure, The theory and practice of
fox-ranching (Charlottetown, 1926). In Canada,- the Natural Resources In-

144

The Fur-Trade of Canada

telligence Branch, Department of Interior, Ottawa, and in the United States,
the Bureau of Biological Survey, Department of Agriculture, Washington,
have done notable work in issuing bibliographies, mimeographed material, and
more permanent printed material on the subject. Questions sent to these
organizations on various problems of the trade receive every possible attention.
The Dominion Bureau of Statistics issues an Annual report on fur farms of Canada.
The Canadian national record for foxes is also published in Ottawa. W. E. Castle,
Genetics and eugenics (Cambridge) is valuable as a treatise on general principles
of breeding.

General works on the manufacture of furs include W. E. Austin, Principles
and practice of fur dressing and fur dyeing (New York, 1922), with bibliography,
and C. J. Rosenberg, Furs and furriery (London, n.d.). The Dominion Bureau
of Statistics issues an Annual report on the fur goods industry in Canada.

The subject of marketing has received slight attention as a separate problem.
A slight description of Leipzig will be found in H. Clad and W. Lange, Der
Rauchwarenhandel und seine Beziehungen zu Leipzig (Leipzig, 1923). Works
related to the subject include M. Petersen, Petersen's fur trade lexicon (New York,
1920), Fur trade directory (New York), Fur-buyer’s directory (New York), Fur-
buyer’s guide (St. Louis).

As to details of regulation, the statutes and regulations of the various provinces
must be consulted. The fish and game department of each province is the chief
source of complete information. C. G. Hewitt, The conservation of wild life in
Canada (New York, 1921), is an important work.

A general bibliography of miscellaneous works is appended for the use of
those especially interested in the subject.

Production

Cabot, W. B., In northern Labrador (Boston, 1912).

Huntington, E., Climatic changes: their nature and causes (New Haven, 1922).

Huntington, E., Earth and sun (New Haven, 1923).

Seton, E. T., The Arctic prairies (Toronto, 1911).

Journals of the Senate-. Report. Evidence and other documents presented by
the Select Committee of the Senate, Vol. XLIII, 1906-7. App. no. 1.

Report of the Select Committee of the Senate appointed to enquire into the
resources of the Great Mackenzie basin, Vol. XXII, app. 1.

Fur-Farming

Edwards, J. L., Muskrat farming (New York).

Edwards, J. L., Mink farming (New York).

Harding, A. R., Fur farming (St. Louis).

Holbrook, F. M., Skunk culture for profit (New York).

Hodgson, R. G., Raising beavers for profit (Oshawa, 1924).

Lamb, W. B., Mink: How to raise, breed, and sell (Utica, New York).

Patton, H., Raising fur-bearing animals (Chicago, 1925).

Washburn, F. L., The rabbit book (New York).

Bibliography

145

Manufacture

Bericht tiber Handel and Industrie.

Farnham, A. B., Home manufacture of furs and skins (Columbus, O., 1916).
Jahresberichte des deulschen Kurschnerverbandes (Hamburg).

Protokoll des aiisserordenllichen Bundestages des deutschen Kurschnerverbandes
(Hamburg, 1918).

Protokoll der Verhandlungen der 6 International en Kiirshnerkonferenz (Berlin,
1921).

Reports of the Dressers and Dyers Association (New York).

Reports of the National Association of the Fur Industry.

Periodicals

American Fox and Fur Farmer (Utica, N.Y.)

American Fur-breeder (Eminence, N.Y.)

American Furrier (New York)

American Fur Buyer (New York)

A rchivs fur Wirtschaftsforschung im Orient
Beaver Magazine (Winnipeg)

Betriebsrate-Zeitschrift.

A. Regge, Der Kurschnerverband im Rahmen der Industrie Organization.
(3 Jhrg. Nr. 21).

Black Fox Magazine (New York)

Bourse aux Cuirs aux Bruxelles
British Journal of Experimental Biology

E. S. Elton, Periodic fluctuations in the numbers of animals (Vol. II,
October, 1924).

Canadian Naturalist and Geologist

B. R. Ross, A popular treatise on the fur-bearing animals of the Mackenzie
River District (Vol. VI, 1861, pp. 5-36).

Der Kurschner (Berlin)

Family Herald and Weekly Star (Montreal)

Fur Age Monthly (New York)

Fur Age Weekly (New York)

Fur Farmer Magazine (Seattle, Wash.)

Fur News (New York)

Fur Trade Journal of Canada (Oshawa, Ontario)

Fur Trade Review (New York)

Hunter, Trader and Trapper ( Columbua , Ohio)

Illustrated Canadian Forestry Magazine (Toronto)

Journal of Mammalogy

A. B. Howell, Periodic fluctuations in the numbers of small mammals (Vol.
4, August 1923). »

F. G. Ashbrook, Trade names in the fur industry (Vol. 4, November 1923).

146

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Neue Pelzwaren und Kurschnerzeitung (Berlin)

Progressive Fur Trapper and Wool Grower (Milwaukee, Wis.)
Rod and Gun in Canada (Woodstock, Ont.)

Trapping

Hodgson, R. G., Trapping in Northern Canada (Oshawa, 1925)
Hunting and Trapping (New York)

Science of Trapping (St. Louis)

Regulation

Reports and publications of the Commission of Conservation
Statutes and orders-in-Council of the various provinces.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

EXPORT OF FURS IN THE FRENCH PERIOD

Value of Furs2

Year Number of Livres of Beaver1 Received at Remarks

Received by the Companies. La Rochelle.

Livres

1626

12-15,000

1645

20,000

1675

ei’ooo

1676

70,000

1677

92,000

1678

80,135

1679

68,080

1680

69,000

1681

82,900

1682

90,353

1683

95,489

1684

49,056

1685

137,568

1686

av. 140,000 ,

1687

1688

1689

1690

1691

1692

1693

1694

1695

1696

1697

204,609

1698

163,000

1699

296,000

'These statistics have been extracted from (Can. Arch.) C 11 A.

^Statistics cited E. Salone, La Colonisation de la Nouvelle France . (Paris, n.d.)
pp. 397-8.

150

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Value of Furs

Year Number of Livres of Beaver Received at Remarks

Received by the Companies La Rochelle

Livres

1700

1701

1702

1703

1704

1705

1706

1707

1708

1709

1710

1711

1712

1717

1718

1719

1720

1721

1722

1723

1724

1725

1726

1727

1728

(29077.9 Castor gras d’hyver
75,993.32 \ 1583.8 Muscovite

| & 5333.15 sec hyver.

73,377

146,395 21 oz.

262,223

776,383

431,148

389,804

166,000 (approximate) 752,873

119,623 801,123

638,604

42,000 (Average Montreal 521,334
receipts)

98,080 (Montreal receipts) 211,952

2,096,392

148,000 (Approximate) 1,307,494

25 conges issued.

120,000 shipped j

32,000 sec in warehouse h
14,000 gras in warehouse )

This large number is the result
of accumulations through hold¬
ing back of furs by merchants
looking for a continuance of
free trade.

648 ballots sec 77,760 livres

330

“ gras

39,600 “

“ veule

236 “

“ Moscovie 2,027 “

29,640 gras
67,956 sec

484 veule, etc.

Appendices

151

Year

Number of Livres of Beaver
Received by the Companies.

Value of Furs

Received at

La Rochelle Remarks

Livres

17291

127,640. 6 oz.

1,329,646

25 concessions granted for poor

1730

161,267. 8 oz.

1,411,285

families.

A very good year.

1731

1732

170,000 (Approximate)

1,161,827

1,014,469

1733

221,000 (Approximate)

1,191,989

Ascribed to rise in price of

1734

150,000 (Approximate)

949,815

English goods at Oswego.

Les Scioux and La Mer de

1735

177,649. 8 oz.

920,937

l’Ouest produced 15 to 20,000
in 1734 and nearly 75,000 in
1735, offsetting a decline due
to Indian wars.

Reduction of previous year as-

1736

94,000 (Approximate)

653, 7182

cribed to reduction in price of
bad beaver. Indians took bad
beaver to English and also
good.

1737

124,000

632,763

Complaints of higher French

1738

131,000

1,084,958

prices and better goods (rum,
kettles, blankets) at Oswego.

1739

147,000 (Approximate)

1,035,216

131,198 livres exported. Post of

1740

128,400 or 1,070 ballots

981,806

La Baye 110 paquets, ordinarily
3 to 400 paquets.

1741

1,044,836

Conges sold for 17,494 livres

1742

160,000 (Approximate)

ranging in value from 24
livres to 3,000 livres.

'Recette Generale des Castors Receu dans le Bureaux de la Compagnie des
Indes en Canada, 1729.

Montreal

gras hyvert et vert 22,080

sec hyvert et autres 77,627.2

Total 99,707.2

Three Rivers Quebec

1,269.15 5,386.5

4,443.2 16,383.14

*5,713.1 22,220.3

2Wreck of the vessel Renonimee with loss of 126,848 livres.

152

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Value of Furs

Year

Number of Livres of Beaver
Received by the Companies.

Received at Remarks

La Rochelle

Livres

1743

112,080

15,000 capot de castor. Conges

sold for 12,232 livres 13 sous.
Posts leased March 26, 1743:

Temiscamingue 5,600

Michipicoten 3,750

Wiatanons 3,000

La Baye 8,100

1744

200,000 (Approximate)

1,937,720 A good hunting year — lack of

snow.

1745

180,000 (Approximate)

Farmers asking to be discharged

from posts because of high
price of merchandise.

1746

188,585. 15 oz.

248,137

1747

150,919

980,084

1748

166,172. 3 oz.

778,528

1749

2,803,679

1750

1,211,010

1751

970,869

1752

3,084,501

1753

636,673

1754

132,451

3,932,127 Temiscamingue farmed for

4,400 livres.

1755

148,998

Exported to France.

1756

151,937

1757

1,988,869

1758

577,312

1759

704,536

1760

256,020

1761

532,025

Note the pronounced fluctuations in the supply of beaver and in the value of
furs received at La Rochelle. Various reasons have been suggested. Wars were
undeniably important; changes in regulation policy, in seasons, and in the effects
of competition were also significant. It is noteworthy that the supply of beaver
has not fallen off appreciably although other furs have become increasingly
important, see a detailed list of the number of other “pelleteries sorties pour France
en 1754” and ‘‘en 1755”, reproduced on next page. For earlier comments on
these furs see for marten Can. Arch. C 11 A, Vol. 31 (1710), pp. 267-268, P.
F. X. Charlevoix, Journal of a voyage to North America, ed., L. P. Kellogg (Chicago,
1923), pp. 183, 184, 192, 193, also P. Boucher, Canada in the seventeenth century
(Montreal, 1883), pp. 35-40.

Appendices

153

Shelburne MSS., vol. 64.

p. 161. '

Pelleteries sorties pour france en 1754

Martres du Nord

8586 peaux

Martres du Sud

30029

Visons

1667

Loups cerviers

5411

Chats cerviers

1008

Renards rouges

1094

Renards argentes

Renards croises

183

Renards du Sud

1783

Pichoux

5167

Loutres

9129

Peccands

3216

Peaux d'Ours

10761

Oursons

4507

Chats ou Marmottes

84037

Loups de bois

1139

Carcajoux

207

Loups Marins

323

Rats musqu6s

7142

Rats de bois

Ecureuils

1488

Siffleurs

Chevreuils passes

123852

Chevreuils verts

15318

Cerfs verts

3260

Originaux verts

998

Originaux passes

Castor Sec hyver

107090

Castor gras hyver

14943

Castor d’ete

9378

Rognons de Castor

1040

ll s //. s. d.

5. 10 . 47223. -

3. 10 . 105101. 10. -

2. 10 . 4167. 10. -

10. - 54110. -

4. - 4032. -

4. - 4376. -

12. - 72. -

6. - 1098. -

3. 10 . 6240. 10.

4. - . 20668. -

10. - 91290. -

7. 10 . 24120. 10. -

10. - 107610. -

5. - 22535. -

2. 2 . 176477. 14. -

5. . 5695. - -

6. - 1242. - -

1. 10 . 484. -

5 . 1785. 10. -

5 . 20. 15. -

2 .... 148. 16. -

1 . - 15- -

2. - 247704. - -

3. . 45954. - -

16. - 52160. - -

20. - . 18160.

5. - 90- - *

4. . 428360. -

4’ . 59772. - -

1. 10 . 14067. 1. -

3^ . 3120. -

1547885.// lli. -

(A true copy)

H. T. Cramahe Secy.

154

The Fur-Trade of Canada

p. 164 Endorsed: —

No. 7.

Quantity of Furs Exported in
1754, with the Quebec Prices
of the several species.

p. 165

Pelleteries sorties pour france en 1755.

Martres du Nord
Martres du Sud

9386 Peauxa
28158 5

4.// 105 .

1. 12 .

//.

45052

16.

Loutres

8533

51198

Peccands

2703

10 .

. . . 12163

10.

12.

Renards et Pichoux

10151

12. . . .

. . . 16241

Carcajoux

329

1316

Ours

10151

60906

Oursons

3568

10704

Loups Cerviers

896

10 .

6720

Chats Cerviers

2690

12 .

4304

Visons et Marmottes
Loups de Bois

64064

1361

12 .

4083

Chats Sauvages

Cerfs Verts

95722

4095

12.

12 .

. . . 103155.
49140

Chevreuils verts

2661

7983

Chevreuils passes
Originaux verts
Rognons de Castor
Loups Marins

Castor

69450 L
615
1336L
104
1363 i

paquets

2. LaLivre .

18. piece .

1. 5. LaL .

3. piece ....
pezant 148,998.

. . . 138900.

. . . 11070.

Livres de Castor Suppose le tout

Castor gras... A 4 .11 La Livre . 595992.

Total 1265650.// Q.s

H. T. Cramahe Secy

(A true Copy)

APPENDIX B

TRAPPER’S OUTFIT, 1924

Average1 Trapper’s Outfit for Peace Riveb and the Northwest

Average outfit
Flour
Syrup
Sugar
Potatoes
Dried fruit

$500.00 — may run to $1,500.00.

400 lbs. for year. About 1 lb. a day — 50 lbs. for 6 weeks.
20 lbs.

100 lbs.

Depending on locality.

100 lbs. — 4 boxes — or 150 lbs.

Prunes j

Peaches t a box of each

Apricots j

Apples

Raisins

Figs

Sourdough pots — most important for outfit — wooden or stone jar.

Little or no canned stuff— limited to canned tomatoes— too bulky— too expensive
and injured by freezing.

Baking soda— 2 or 3 lbs. to 5 lbs— with sourdough plenty of soda necessary
for hot cakes.

Condensed milk— 1 case, 4 doz. tins. Generally no milk taken.

Little or no Cream.

Tea

Coffee

Cocoa

Bacon

Rice

Corn meal

10 to 15 lbs. A little extra for trading.

More used than tea. 1 lb. a month— 10 lbs. Probably
average 25 lbs.

5 lbs.

100 lbs. If pickled in salt must be parboiled. Sow belly.
Generally mixed with beans. Well salted, most bacon
with not sufficient salt. (Depends on pocket book.)

50 lbs. used especially with duck, etc. Tapioca, sago,
macaroni sometimes taken, generally extras.

50 lbs. for dog feed — may have 100 to 200 lbs. with less

bacon.

Lard 20-40 lbs.

Canned butter 1 or 2 lb. tins.— 30 lbs. (luxury) very expensive. De¬
pends on pocket book, sometimes done without. _

!The average trapper of course does not exist and these items will probably
not suit any one taste. They are intended rather as an index of goods demanded—
Compare with an estimate for Eastern Canada-1907. Martin Hunter, Canadian
Wilds (Columbus, Ohio, 1907), pp. 232-5.

156

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Jam 8 to 10 tins- — since the war. 5 or 6 four pound tins —

25 to 50 lbs. jam.

Cheese Very seldom take cheese. Kraft keeps moist. 1 or 2

boxes.

Oatmeal 30 to 50 lbs. (More if used for dogs.)

Tobacco 20 lbs. for heavy smoker. Nigger Head, T. and B., or

MacDonald.

Savory 1 or 2 tins sage and mint-flavouring.

Dried onions 1 tin (5 lbs.) very useful.

Salt 10 lbs.

Pepper 2 tins — red and black — taste.

Dessicated fruit becoming more useful.

Tallow — dog feed — 501b. case.

Axe

Skinning knife

Track line for upstream travelling — cod line — must be light line — 100 feet in
water— necessary to be able to throw it if caught. About
180 ft.

For going upstream— built by trappers.

For going downstream.

Yukon poling boat

Canoe

Hammer

Handsaw

Nails

10 to 15 lbs. in. to 4 in. Mostly

Assafoetidia

Beaver castor
Fish nets

Some use no nails.

"lyi in.

Oil of anise — for scent — 50 cents., or 1 oz. bottle.

Oil of iodium — Marten bait.

Purchase of scent questionable.

Cheap at posts — used for lynx.

3 to 5 y2 mesh. 30 ft. in net— for goldeyes as on Peace
River— 3 lb. ball of net or 100 yds. of Zy2" to 4" mesh.
Small hand sleigh, toboggan or Yukon sled (with runners)

Harness for dogs.

Very few use more than 2 dogs. Many have 1 dog. Lots have none. Dogs
expensive — money and time.

Pots, pans, frying pans (2 or 3) one at each camp. 2 frying pans one for bacon,
one for other cooking.

doz. packages — gross — according to tobacco.

Two empty gasoline tins. Easy to pack. Have end wired
to top to fall down, closing fire. Dovetail tins together-
three or four cuts on top with can opener — bend back
to hold stove pipe.

2 or 3 rolls. Strong picture wire doubled (No. 8) snare
for lynx Lynx snare cord-similar to trapping line.
Generally fish with nets.

Matches

Stove

Brass wire for rabbits.
2 fish flies — trout, etc.

Appendices

157

Clothing According to taste. Double suit of underwear — pair of

overalls, mackinaw, shirt, riding breeches popular.

Snowshoes 2 pairs. 1 pr. trailers— light snow, 1 pair big shoe for

deep snow.

Moccasins 3 — 6 pr. Rubbers with canvas tops (summer) shoes.

Winter — moccasins and heavy woollen socks.

Mitts mooseskin.

B.C. heater — (most popular) outside $6 to $10, inside $25. Drum oven, used
with B.C. heaters, made of stove pipe, fits on stove pipe —
2 ft. above stove. Generally use ordinary camp stove.

1 doz. lengths 5” pipe, 3 or 4 lengths for stove and other for shelter. Make
stove out of pipe (7")

Yi doz. files — for axes.

Cross cut saw — 5 or 6 ft.

60 to 100 traps at least. Weight about 150 lbs. Best men, 150 to 200 traps.
Nothing less than No. l’s.

50 — No. 1. Purely marten.

10— No. 1Y- Mink. Also rats.

20— No. 2. Fox.

10 — No. 3. Lynx and beaver.

10 — No. 4. used only for beaver — heavy trap.

5 doz. No. 1 weighs 90 lbs.

Box of candles — 36 lbs.

Winchester rifle 22 high power.

Ammunition, $820.00 to $825.00 — 4 to 500 rounds.

303-British sporting rifle.

30-30 — -100 rounds.

16' x 18' cabins— 8' x 10' tent, or 10 x 12—12 x 14—2 windows white cotton.

Dutch oven.

2 or 3 axes. H.B. — one 3 lb. whole axe, two 2 lb. axes.
Shotgun, 16 bore— ducks, geese, partridge, plarmigan, rabbits.
For loading shells — -10 to 15 lbs. powder., 10 to 15 lbs. shot.
Canvas — boat roof.

APPENDIX C

TRAPPERS’ SUPPLIES
1. Treaty Supplies 1924

Wt. of package

Character of casing material.

Black Powder

Pork

Shot

Cordage

Hardware

Saws

Drugs

Flour

Tobacco

Tea

85 lbs.
90-113 “
100
75
100
20

20-100 “
100

40- 46 “
50

3 tins (long boxes)
bags
boxes
boxes
boxes
sacking
boxes

always treaty — bags
caddies — bulk,
boxes — 1 lb. packages.

Mission supplies — Drugs, Oranges.

2. Supplies Brought in by the Trading Companies, 1924

Coal oil — steel barrels

120

lbs. half drums, first time on Mackenzie River in
1924.

Gasoline — barrels — •

“ case

Permit

“ box

Tobacco

35-85

Caddies, sacks, varying on sort of tobacco

Flour

“ often 2-20 lb. small sacks in 1 larger sack

or 60 lbs. in 1 sack. Trappers de¬
mand small sacks.

Baking Powder

“ box — tins.

Candles

“ box

Evaporated Apples

“ . box

Prunes

“ box

Jam

“ box (tins)

Soap

“ box (wrapper)

Syrup

“ box (tins)

Matches

“ box

Corn meal

100

“ bags

Crisco

“ tins

Rice

100

“ bulk (bags)

Hessian

“ bales

Tents

“ bales

Appendices

159

W t. of package Character of casing material.

C. P. goods 100 lbs.

Dry Goods

90-110

bales

Twine

sacking

Boots and shoes

“ /

boxes

Fish nets

boxes

Confectionery

boxes (pails)

Rubbers

boxes

Roofing (tar paper, 2

rolls each box)

124

crated

Hard tack

boxes

Biscuits

1 1

boxes

Cigarettes

1 1

boxes

Paper bags

1 1

boxes

Coffee

100

boxes (tins)

Rope

Stove pipe

crates

Traps

100

boxes

Ammunition

boxes

Salmon (B.C.)

Files

160

box

Guns

50-100

box

Tinware

105

box

Crockery

barrel

Stationery

box

Sash

box

Pipes

box

Castoria

100

1 1

box

Painkiller

box

Soap

box

Groceries

1 1

box

Cocoa

box

Cereals

bags

Corn Starch

box

Milk

40-50

box — tins

Currants

box

Dates

box — bulk

Peaches

box — tins

Raisins

box

Meat

(case)

Vegetables

box

Beans

100

bags

Egg powder

box

Fish

box (sardines)

160

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Wt. of package

Wall paper

Perfume

Axe handles

Axes (H.B.)

Camp stoves

100

Nails

100

Cutlery

Paint

Dog harness

100

Picture wire

Rolled Oats

Can. Fruit

Candy

110

Pickles

Vinegar

Mushrooms

Can. onions

Honey

Evaporated Pears

Barley

100

Sugar

100

lump

granulated

100

Lard

Tallow

Bacon

130 lb.

cases

Ham

130

lbs.

Sausage

125

Pemmican (box)

125

Stove polish

Soups

Butter

Oranges

Cheese

Oakum

Character of casing material
rolls (crate)
box
box
box
crated
kegs
box

box — pails

box

bags

box

box — pails

box — bottles

kegs

box

box — pails
box
sacks
sacks

box — easily carried.

sacks (two sewed in burlap)

long boxes — pails

box

keg

small sacks (tubs of canvas)

box

box — tins
box-crate
box

bundles

APPENDIX D

MISNAMED FURS

The following list of misnarrjed furs, as used by the fur-trade, has been compiled
by the Biological Survey ( Journal of Mammalogy, vol. 4, Nov. 1923, pp. 216-220).

Trade Name
Adelaide Chinchilla
Alaska bear

Alaska sable

Aleutian seal
American seal

Arctic seal
Astrakhan}
Astrachan )
Australian fisher
Baltic fox

Baltic seal

Bear

Beaver

Real Name of Animal

Australian opossum

Raccoon (dark pelts)

Raccoon (dark pelts); skunk (natural black or dyed)
Muskrat (plucked and dyed)

Rabbit (plucked and dyed)

Persian lamb (loose curl)

Wallaby (sheared and dyed)

Northern hare

Rabbit (clipped and dyed)

Goat (dyed)

Coypu rat (plucked natural); or opossum (sheared and
dyed)

Black fox

Black lynx

Black Marten

Blue Japanese wolf
Brazilian mink

Black cat

Northern hare (dyed)

Skunk (dyed or natural black)

Goat (dyed)

Marmot (blended)

Broadtail Persian lamb (moire silk pattern)

Brown Newfoundland

seal Seal (brown hair)

California mink

Cape seal

Caracul j

Karakule j-
Caracool )

Cat

Civet cat

Chinchilla

Clipped seal

Coney

Electric seal

Ringtail cat

Rabbit (sheared and dyed)

Persian lamb (close curl)

Rabbit (sheared and dyed)

Small striped skunk; or hydrophobia skunk

White rabbit (dyed)

Rabbit (plucked and dyed)

Rabbit

Muskrat (plucked and dyed); coypu rat (plucked and

Ermine (weasel)
Fitch

Fox

French sable

dyed); rabbit (sheared and dyed)

White rabbit

European polecat

Hare (dyed)

Rabbit (dyed)

162

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Geller seal
Genet

Hudson Bay seal
Hudson seal

Isabella fox

Japanese lynx

Karakule kids

Koala

Kolinsky

Krimmer

LaMeuse seal

Mink

Mole

Monkey

Muskrat

New seal

Northern seal

Nutria

Patagonian bison
Persian lamb
Persianer
Pointed Fox

Polar seal
Real Russian sable
Real seal
Red River seal

River mink
River sable
Russian otter
Semeuse seal
Sable

Sable Fitch
Seal

Seal Musquash
Sidney raccoon
Skunk

Two L seal
White Fox
Wombat

Rabbit (plucked and dyed)

Cat

Muskrat (plucked and dyed)

Muskrat (plucked and dyed); coypu rat (plucked and
dyed); rabbit (sheared and dyed)

Domestic dog (dyed and curled)

Black Manchurian dog
Kid (dyed)

Wallaby (sheared and dyed)

Red sable, or Siberian mink

Gray lamb skin resembling astrachan

Rabbit (plucked and dyed)

Marmot (dyed)

Muskrat (sheared and dyed)

Goat (dyed)

Rabbit (sheared and dyed)

Rabbit (plucked and dyed)

Coypu rat

China sheep (short haired)

Domestic dog (dyed and curled) ; kid (dyed)

Persian lamb (close curl)

Red fox dyed black, white badger hairs stuck in, and
white tip sewed on tail
Rabbit (plucked and dyed)

American marten (sable); Hudson Bay marten (sable)
Muskrat (plucked and dyed)

Muskrat (plucked and dyed); coypu rat (plucked and
dyed) ; rabbit (sheared and dyed)

Muskrat (blended)

Muskrat (natural)

Muskrat (blended)

Rabbit (plucked and dj'ed)

Hare (dyed); marmot (dyed); mink (dyed); rabbit
(dyed); Norwegian fitch (dyed)

Norwegian fitch (dyed)

Coypu rat (plucked and dyed) ; otter (plucked and dyed)
Rabbit (sheared and dyed)

Wallaby (sheared and dyed)

Marmot (dyed); wallaby (dyed); opossum (sheared and
dyed); wallaby (sheared and dyed)

Rabbit (plucked and dyed)

Northern hare
Koala

INDEX

Adelaide Chinchilla, trade na'me of
Australian opossum, Appendix
D, 161

Africa, supply of furs in, 82; Table C,
83

Alaska bear, trade name of raccoon,
Appendix D, 161

Alaska sable, trade name of raccoon
and skunk, Appendix D, 161

Alberta, protection of beaver in, 51;
close seasons in, 53; license fees
in, 56; enforcement of regulations
in, 59

Aleutian seal, trade name of muskrat,
Appendix D, 161

American seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 161

Anticosti, conservation in, 66

Arctic seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 161

Asia, production of furs in, Table B,
opposite p. 76

Astrakhan, or Astrachan, world pro¬
duction of, Table B, opposite p.
76; durability of, 116 n.; trade
name of Persian lamb, Appendix
D, 161

Auction markets, Edmonton, 136;
Leipzig, 129-130, 133, 135;

London, 130-133, 135; Montreal,
136; New York, 136; Winnipeg,
137

Australia, production of furs in, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply of furs
in, 81 J value of furs in, Table C,
83

Australian fisher, trade name of walla¬
by, Appendix D, 161

Australian opossum, prices of, 15;
called Adelaide chinchilla, Ap¬
pendix D, 161

Austria-Hungary, value of furs in,
Table C, 83

Badger, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; supply in Aus¬
tralia, 81, in North America, 84,
in Europe, 86; increase in supply
1865-1924, 92; size and weight of
.skin, 111 uses of, 113 n.

Baltic fox, trade name of hare, Ap¬
pendix D, 161

Baltic seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 161

Bassarisk, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76

Bear, protection in Quebec, 50; close
season in Quebec, 52; in British
Columbia, 53; world production
of, Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in North America, 84, in Russia,
85, in Europe, 86; increase in
supply 1865-1924, 92; size and
weight of skin, 111 various
uses of, 113 durability of,
116 n.\ trade name of goat,
Appendix D, 161

Beaver, 11-13; protection in New
Brunswick, 49, in Nova Scotia, 50,
in Quebec, 50, in Ontario, 50, 52,
in Saskatchewan, 50, in Alberta,
51, 53, in North West Territories,
53; supply fluctuations, 76, and
graph 17, 77-79; world production
of, Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in North America, 84, in Russia,

164

The Fur-Trade of Canada

85; increase in supply 1865-1924,
92; size and weight of skin, 111
various uses of, 112«. and 113w.;
durability of, 116«.; trade name
of Coypu rat and opossum,
Appendix D, 161
Belgium, fur industry in, 120
Bergviscachas, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76
Biological Survey of the United States,
64

Black fox, trade name of black cat,
Appendix D, 161

Black lynx, trade name of hare, Ap¬
pendix D, 161

Black marten, trade name of skunk,
Appendix D, 161

Blue Japanese wolf, trade name of goat,
Appendix D, 161

Bounties on destructive animals, 61
Brazilian mink, trade name of marmot,
Appendix D, 161

British Columbia, close seasons in, 53;
license fees in, 57; enforcement of
regulations in, 59

Broadtail, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; in Russia, 85;
trade name of Persian lamb, Ap¬
pendix D, 161

Brown Newfoundland seal, trade name
of seal, Appendix D, 161
Brush-making, 114 n.

Buffalo, 13 n,; world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; supply in
North America, 84

Burunducki, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76

“Caging” furs, 105, 107, 110
California mink, trade name of ringtail
cat, Appendjx D, 161
Canada, fur dressing in, 120-121; ex¬
ports and imports of dressed furs,
121

Canadian Fur Auction Sales Company,
136

Canadian Silver Fox Breeders’ Associa¬
tion, 69

Cape seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 161

Caracool, or Caracul, trade name of
Persian lamb, Appendix D, 161
Carcajou, 13
Caribou, 89

Carnivora, 13, 90; “amphibious”, 12
Castor canadensis Kuhl (American
beaver). See beaver
Castoridae. See beaver
Cat, native, 15; civet, in South Africa,
82, in North America, 84;
domestic, in Australia, 81, in
South America, 81, in North
America, 84, in Russia, 85, in
Europe, 86; genet, in South
Africa, 82; tiger, in South Africa,
82, in Russia, 85; wild, in South
America, 81; world production
of, Table B, opposite p. 78; size
and weight of skin, 111 n.\ uses
of, 112 trade names for, Ap¬
pendix D, 161

Chinchilla, 67, 80, 86; bastard, 15;
world producton of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; Bolivia, Plata or
bastard, 80; durability of, 116
trade name of white rabbit, Ap¬
pendix D, 161

Chinchillones, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; 80
Chinese dog, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76
Chinese goat, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 78

Chinese kid, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76

Civet cat, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; in South
Africa, 82, in North America, 84;

Index

165

durability of, 116 «.; trade name
of skunk, Appendix D, 161
Clipped seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 161

Close seasons in various provinces, 51-
53 ..

Coney, durability of, 116 n. ; trade name
of rabbit, Appendix D, 161
Conservation, 48-66; difficulty of en¬
forcing regulations, 48-49 and 57-
60; provincial regulations, 49-51;
close seasons, 51-53; poison pro¬
hibited, 51; license fees, 53-57;
reserves established, 60; effective¬
ness of regulations, 61-66; smugg¬
ling, 61-66

Coypu, trade names for, Appendix D,
161-2

Cutting of fur, 113

Cyclical fluctuations in animal life, 89

Dog, Chinese, 85; world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; trade
names for, Appendix D, 161-2
Dressing of furs, 104-5
Drying of skins, 107
Durability of furs, table, 116-117 n.
Dyeing of furs, 108-110
Dyes, 110

Edmonton auction market, 136
Electric seal, trade name of muskrat,
etc., Appendix D, 181-2
England, fur industry in, 119
Ermine, 12, 84, 85; world production
of, Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in Europe, 86; increase in supply
1865-1924, 92; size and weight of
skin, 111 n.\ durability of, 116 n . ;
trade name of white rabbit, Ap¬
pendix D, 161

Europe, production of furs in, Table B,
opposite p. 76; increase in supply
of furs in, 86; marketing organiza¬
tion in, 129

Exports of dressed and undressed furs,
121-2; of manufactured fur goods,
122; during the French period,
Appendix A, 149-154

Farming, fur. See Fur-farming
Felt hat industry in United States, 114
Fisher, graph of prices and supply, 29;
close seasons, 51-53; world pro¬
duction of, Table B, opposite p.
76; supply in South America, 81,
in North America, 84; increase in
supply 1865-1924, 92; size and
weight of skin, 111 n.

Fitch, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; supply in Russia,
85, in Europe, 86; trade name of
European polecat, and trade
names for, Appendix D, 161-2
“Fleshing” furs, 105
Fox, 12, 15; graph of prices, 1882-1912,
19; graph of prices and supply,
1857-1911, 25, 26; close seasons,
52; farming, 66-75; world pro¬
duction of, Table B, opposite p.
76; supply in Australia, 81, in
America, 82, in Russia, 85, in
Europe, 86; increase in supply,
1865-1924, 92; size and weight
of skins, 111 n.\ various uses of,
112 n. , 113 ft. ; durability of, 116
n. ; trade names for, Appendix D,
161-2

France, fur industry in, 119
French sable, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 161
Fur, general description of, 11-13
Furs, demand for, 14-17; cause of rise
in price, 16-17; analysis of price
fluctuations, 18-47; estimate of
producing areas, 1863-1924, 76;
table of world production, opposite
p. 76; supply fluctuations, 76-92;
values in various countries, 83-6;

166

The Fur-Trade of Canada

increase in supply in various
countries, 83-6; increase in supply,
1865-1924, 92; prices in 1917,
103 n.

Fur-farming, 66-75; silver fox-farming,
67-75; number of farms in various
provinces, 70; size and value of
farms in Ontario and P.E.I., 71;
percentage of deaths in young, 71;
ownership of farms in Ontario and
P.E.I., 72; boarding foxes, 73;
prices of pelts and live animals,
73; future of, 74-75

Furriers’ guilds, 101

Game commissioners, guardians, in¬
spectors, wardens, 57

Game laws. See conservation.

Gazelles, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; in South Africa,
82

Geller seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 162

Genet, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; durability of, 116
n.\ trade name of cat, Appendix
D, 162

Germany, value of furs in, Table C,
83; fur industry in, 119

Goat, Chinese (pahmi), world pro¬
duction of, Table B, opposite p.
76; supply in Russia, 85; dura¬
bility of, 116 n.; trade names for,
Appendix D, 161-2

Grading of furs, 102-104; table, 103 n.\
130, 134, 137

Graphs: 1 — Prices of red fox, 1882-
1912, 19

2 — Prices of muskrat, 1882-

1912, 20

3 — S auerbeck’s index of

wholesale prices, 1857-
1911, and index of fur
prices, Hudson’s Bay
Co., compared, 21

4 — Index of fur prices in

Canada, 1890-1924, 23

5— Silver fox, prices and

supply, 1857-1911, 25

6 — Red fox, prices and supply,

1857-1911, 26

7 — Land otter, prices and

supply, 1857-1911, 28

8 — Fisher, prices and supply,

1857-1911, 29

9 — Marten, prices and supply,

1857-1911, 31

10 — Mink, prices and supply,

1 1857-1911, 32

11 — Lynx, prices and supply,

1857-1911, 34

12a — Muskrat, prices and sup¬
ply, 1857-1911, 36
12b — Muskrat, price index,
1890-1924, 37

13a — Skunk, prices and supply
1857-1911, 38

13b — Skunk, price index,

1890-1924, 39

14a — Raccoon, prices and sup¬
ply, 1857-1911, 40
14b — Raccoon, price index,
1895-1911, 41

15 — Wolf, prices and supply,

1857-1911, 42

16 — Wolverine, prices and sup¬

ply, 1857-1911, 43

17 — Fluctuations in supply of

beaver skins, 1626-1919,
77-79

Greenland, production of furs in, Table
B, opposite p. 76; value of furs in,
Table C, 83

Guanaco, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in South
America, 81

Guard hair (overhair), 11

Halbaffen, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76

Index

167

Hamster, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in
Europe, 86

Hare, 12; world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in South
America, 1924, 81, in Russia, 85,
in Europe, 86; uses of, 113
durability of, 116 trade names
for, Appendix D, 161-2
Holarctic (Heilprin) region, 13
Hudson’s Bay Company, 19, 21, 25,
26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 36, 38,
40, 42, 43, 44, 47, 65, 66, 78, 79
82, 87, 88, 91; marketing organ¬
ization, 130-133

Hudson Bay seal, trade name of
muskrat, Appendix D, 162
Hudson seal, trade name of muskrat,
coypu rat, rabbit, Appendix D,
162

Iceland, production of furs in, Table B,
opposite p. 76

Ickennonfelle, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76
Imports of dressed furs, 121; of un¬
dressed furs, 121-3; of manu"
factured fur goods, 122
Indian Department, policy, 98, 100
Isabella fox, trade name of domestic
dog, Appendix D, 162

Jackals, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; supply in South
Africa, 82, in Russia, 85
Jaguar (Brazil, Pampas, and Pata¬
gonia), world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; 81
Japanese lynx, trade name of black
Manchurian dog, Appendix D, 162

Karakule, trade name of Persian lamb,
Appendix D, 161

Karganer, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76

Kangaroo, 15, 81

Kid, 85; Chinese kid, world pro¬
duction of, Table B, opposite p.
76; trade names for, Appendix D,
161-2

“Killing” furs, 108

Koala, trade name of wallaby, Ap¬
pendix D, 161-2

Kolinski, world production of, Table Bi
opposite p. 76; in Russia, 85, in
Europe, 86; durability of, 116
trade name of red sable, or
Siberian mink, Appendix D, 162

Krimmer, world production of, Table
B, opposite 76; durability of,
116 trade name of gray lamb,
Appendix D, 162

Labrador, 87-89

Lamb-skins, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in South
America, 81, in South Africa, 82,
in Russia, 85, in Tibet, 85, in
Europe, 86; trade names for,
Appendix D, 161-2

Lamb, Shiras, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76

Lamb, Slink, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76

Lamb, Tibet, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76

La Meuse seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 162

Legislation regarding conservation. See
conservation

Leipzig, marketing centre, 129-130,
133, 135

Leopards, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in
South Africa, 82, in Russia, 85;
durability of, 116 n.

168

The Fur-Trade of Canada

License fees, in P.E.I., 53, New Bruns¬
wick, 54, Nova Scotia, 54, Ontario,
55, Quebec, 55, Alberta, 56, Mani¬
toba, 56, Saskatchewan, 56,
British Columbia, 57, Northwest
Territories, 57, Yukon, 57; col¬
lection of, 57

Lions, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76

London, marketing centre, 15, 130-133,
135

Lynx, 15, 88; graph of prices and
supply, 1857-1911, 34; world pro¬
duction of, Table B, opposite p.
76; supply in North America, 84,
in Europe, 86; increase in supply,
1865-1924, 92; size and weight of
skins, 111 nr, uses of, 112 nr,
durability of, 116 n.

Manitoba, close seasons in, 53; license
fees in, 56; enforcement of regula¬
tions in, 59; fur goods industry in,
123

Marketing organization, 127-139; in
Siberia, 128-129, in Europe, 129, in
Hudson’s Bay Company, 130-133,
in North America, 133-139

Marmot, 15; world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in North America, 84, in Russia,
85, in Europe, 86; trade names
for, Appendix D, 161-2

Marten, graph of prices and supply,
1857-1911, 31; close seasons in
various provinces, 50-53; world
production of, Table B, opposite
p. 76; supply in North America,
84, in Russia, 85, in Europe, 86;
increase in supply, 1865-1924, 91;
size and weight of skin, 111 nr,
uses of, 112 n., 113 n.; durability
of, 116 n. ; trade names for,
Appendix D, 161-2

Middle Europe, production of furs in,
Table B, opposite p. 76; value of
furs in, Table C, 83
Mink, 15; graph- of prices and supply,
1857-1911, 32; close seasons in
various provinces, 51-53; world
production of, Table B, opposite
p. 76; supply in North America,
84, in Russia, 85, in Europe, 86;
increase in supply, 1865-1924, 92;
quotations for 1917, 103 nr, size
and weight of skin, 111 nr, uses
of, 112 n., 113 nr, trade names for,
Appendix D, 161-2
Misnamed furs, Appendix D, 161-2
Mole, 11; world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in North
America, 84, in Europe, 86; uses
of, 112 nr, durability of, 116 nr,
trade name of muskrat, Appendix
D, 162

Monkey, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; supply in South
Africa, 82, in Russia, 85; trade
name of goat, Appendix D, 162
Montreal auction market, 136
Moths, prevention of, 118 n.
Musk-oxen, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in North
America, 84

Muskrat, 12, 13, 15; graph of prices,
1882-1912, 20; graph of prices
and supply, 1857-1911, 36; graph
of price index, 1890-1924, 37;
close seasons and protection in
various provinces, 51-53, in Anti¬
costi, 66; world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in North America, 84, in Europe,
86; increase in supply, 1865-1924,
92; quotations for 1917, 103 nr,
size and weight of skin, 111 n. ;
uses of, 112 n., 113 nr, durability
of, 116 nr, trade name of rabbit,

Index

169

Appendix D, 162; trade names
for, Appendix D, 161-162

Mustelidae (marten, ermine), 13

“Nailing” of fur, 113
Nearctic region (North America), 13
New Brunswick, protection of beaver
in, 49, of fisher, mink, muskrat and
sable in, 51; close seasons in, 51-2;
license fees in, 54; enforcement of
regulations in, 57; bounties in, 61;
fur-farms in, 70

New seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 162
New York auction market, 136
North America, production of furs in,
Table B, opposite p. 76; value of
furs in, Table C, 83; marketing
organization in, 133-139
North West Territories, close seasons
in, 53; license fees in, 57; en¬
forcement of regulations in, 60;
reserves in, 61

Northern seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 162

Norway, value of furs in, Table C, 83
Nova Scotia, protection regulations in,
50; close seasons in, 52; license
fees in, 54; enforcement of regula¬
tions in, 58; fur-farms in, 70
Nutria, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; supply in South
America, 80, in Australia, 81;
durability of, 116 n.\ trade name
of Coypu rat, Appendix D, 162.

Oceana, production of furs in, Table B,
opposite p. 76; value of furs in,
Table C, 83

Ocelots, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76

Ontario, protection of beaver in, 50;
close seasons in, 52; license fees

in, 55; enforcement of regulations
in, 59; fur-farms in, 70-72; fur-
goods industry in, 123
Opossum, 15; world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in Australia, 81, in South America,
81, in North America, 84; dura¬
bility of, 116 n. ; trade names for,
Appendix D, 161-2

Organizations for control of the fur
industry in United States, 124
Otariidae (fur seal), 13
Otter, 12; graph of prices and supply,
1857-1911, 28; close seasons in
various provinces, 50-53; world
production of, Table B, opposite
p. 76; supply in South America,
81, in North America, 84, in
Russia, 85, in Europe, 86; increase
in supply, 1865-1924, 92; size and
weight of skin, 111 n.\ uses of,
113 n.; durability of, 116 w.;
trade names for, Appendix D,
161-2

Ounce, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76
Overhair (guard hair), 11

Pahmi (Chinese badger), world ^pro¬
duction of, Table B, opposite p.
76; 85

Paremeles, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76
Palaearctic region (Eurasia), 13
Patagonian bison, trade name of China
sheep, Appendix D, 162
Pelting, methods of, 102
Persian lamb, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in South Africa, 82; durability of,
116 ft. ; trade name of domestic
dog, Appendix D, 162; trade
names for, 161-2

170

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Persianer, trade name of Persian lamb
162

Perwitzky, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; 85

Pointed fox, trade name of red fox,
dyed, Appendix D, 162

Poison, use of prohibited, 51

Polar animals, 12

Polar bear, 13; world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76

Polar seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 162

Polecat, Siberian, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in Russia, 85; trade names for,
Appendix D, 161-2

Pony, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; supply in Russia,
85; durability of, 116 n.

Pribilof Islands, conservation regula¬
tions in, 66

Price of furs, 15-17; analysis of
fluctuations, 18-47; see graphs
1-16, and Table A, 45-46

Prince Edward Island, close seasons
in, 51; license fees in, 53; en¬
forcement of regulations in, 57;
fur-farms in, 67-74; prices of pelts
and live animals, 73

Protection. See Conservation.

Ptarmigan, 89

Puma, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76

Quebec, protection of beaver and bear
in, 50; close seasons in, 52; license
fees in, 55; enforcement of regula¬
tions in, 58; reserves in, 60; fur-
farms in, 70; fur-goods industry
in, 123

Rabbits, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; supply in Aus¬
tralia, 81, in Russia, 85, in Europe,

86; durability of, 116 trade
names for, Appendix D, 161-2
Raccoon, graph of prices and supply,
1857-1911, ■ 40; graph of price
index, 1890-1924, 41 ; close seasons,
52; world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; supply in North
America, 84, in Russia, 85; size
and weight of skin, 111 n.\ uses
of, 113 n.\ durability of, 116 «.;
trade names for. Appendix D,
161-2

Radio, 139 n.

Real Russian sable, trade name of
American marten, and Hudson’s
Bay marten, Appendix D, 162
Real seal, trade name of muskrat,
Appendix D, 162

Red River seal, trade name of muskrat,
Appendix D, 162

Regulations regarding trapping. See
Conservation

Reindeer, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76

Related products of fur industry, 113n.,
114 n.

Reserves, establishment of, 60
Retail trade, 115-119
Ringtails, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in
Australia, 81; trade names for,
Appendix D, 161-2

River mink, trade name of muskrat,
Appendix D, 162

River sable, trade name of muskrat,
Appendix D, 162
Rodentia, 12, 13, 90
Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 59
60

Russia, production of furs in, Table B,
opposite p. 76; value of furs in,
Table C, 83; supply of furs in, 85
Russian otter, trade name of muskrat,
Appendix D, 162

Index

171

Sable. See Marten
Sable, trade name of hare, etc., Ap¬
pendix D, 102 ✓

Sable fitch, trade name of Norwegian
fitch, Appendix D, 102
St. Louis, marketing centre, 138, 135,
137

Saskatchewan, protection of beaver in,
50; close seasons in, 53; license
fees in, 50

Sauerbeck’s index of wholesale prices,
20, and graph 3, 21
Sea-fox, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 70

Sea-otter, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76

Seal, trade name of coypu rat, Ap¬
pendix D, 162

Seal musquash, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 162

Seals, 12, 66, 81; world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; size and
weight of skin, 111 n.\ durability
of, 116 n.\ trade names for,
Appendix D, 161-162
Sewing of fur, 112

Sheep, wild, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in
Europe, 86; trade names for,
Appendix D, 161-162
Shiras lamb, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76

Siberia, production of furs in, Table B,
opposite p. 76; value of furs in,
Table C, 83; marketing organiza¬
tion in, 128-129

Siberian polecat, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; supply in
Russia, 85; trade names for,
Appendix D, 161-162
Sidney raccoon, trade name of wallaby,
Appendix D, 162

Silver fox. See Fox

Silver Fox Breeders’ Association, in
Prince Edward Island, 69

Sizes of various furs, 111 n.

Skunk, graph of prices and supply,
1865-1911, 38; graph of price
index, 1890-1924, 39; world pro¬
duction of, Table B, opposite p.
76; supply in South America, 81;
in North America, 84; increase in
supply, 1865-1924, 92; size and
weight of skin, 111 n.; uses of,
112 n. and 113 n .; durability
of, 116 trade names for,

Appendix D, 161-162

Slink lamb, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in
Russia, 85

Smuggling of furs, 61-66

Sorting of furs, 113

South America, production of furs in»
Table B, opposite p. 76; furs
produced in, 80-81; value of furs
in, Table C, 83

South Asia, value of furs in, Table C,
83

South Sea Islands, value of furs in,
Table C, 83

Spitzbergen, production of furs in,
Table B, opposite p. 76; value of
furs in, Table C, 83

Squirrel, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; supply in Russia,
85, in Europe, 86; size and weight
of skin, 111 n.\ durability of,
116 n.

Susliki, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; supply in Russia,
85

Sweden, production of furs in, Table B,
opposite p. 76; value of furs in,
Table C, 83

172

The Fur-Trade of Canada

Tanning, 105-7

Tibet lamb, world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76

Tigers, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; in South America,
81

Trade names of furs, Appendix D,
161-162

Traders’ fees. See License fees

Trapping, equipment and methods, 93-
99, and Appendix B, 155-157;
supplies, Appendix C, 158-160

Trapping, regulations for. See Con¬
servation

Traps, 93, 94

Trading-posts, methods of outfitting,
99-100

Two L seal, trade name of rabbit,
Appendix D, 162

United States, conservation regulations
in, 64; fur-dressing statistics, 120;
organizations for control of fur
industry, 124

Ungulata, 13 n.

Uses of various furs, 112 n.

Value of furs in various countries,
Table C, 83

Vicuna, world production of, Table B,
opposite p. 76; in South America,
81

Wages in fur industry, 114-115
seasonal character of, 117 n.

Wallaby, 15; world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; supply

in Australia, 81; trade names of,
Appendix D, 161-162.

Weasel, 15; world production of, Table
B, opposite p. 76; supply in
North America, 84, in Russia
(Chinese and Japanese), 85; uses
of, 112 n.

Weights of various furs, 111 n.

White fox, trade name of northern
hare, Appendix D, 162

Wild Life Advisory Board, 61

Winnipeg auction market, 137

Wolf, graph of prices and supply, 1857-
1911, 42; world production of.
Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in North America, 84, in Europe,
86; increase in supply of, 1865-
1924, 92; size and weight of skin,
111 «.; uses of, 1 12 n.; durability
of, 116 n.

Wolverine, graph of prices and supply,
1857-1911, 43; world production
of, Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in North America, 84, in Russia,
85, in Europe, 86; size and weight
of skin, 111 n.\ durability, 116 n.

Wombat, 15, world production of,
Table B, opposite p. 76; supply
in Australia, 81, in Europe, 86;
trade name of Koala, Appendix D,
162

Yukon, license fees in, 57; enforce¬
ment of regulations in, 80

HD 9944 A2 15

Inms Harold A. (Harold
The fur-trade of Canada.

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